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A GUIDEBOOK FOR
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International
Safeguards Project Office |
January 2003
Eighth Edition
Prepared under
the auspices of the U.S.
Program of Technical
Assistance to IAEA Safeguards
DISCLAIMER The authors of this Guidebook have attempted to make it as accurate and
up-to-date as possible through frequent revision. However, many of the subjects
covered, especially those having to do with the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) salaries, allowances, benefits, and the cost-of-living in Vienna,
represent “moving targets” because of fluctuations in currency exchange rates,
changes in IAEA’s policy, inflation, and other factors. Rent subsidies is one
example of a difficult topic to describe completely, due to the Agency’s
understandable reluctance to reveal one of the critical parameters entering the
calculation. Therefore, all such data appearing in this Guidebook is liable to
change since publication. In all such matters the IAEA is the final authority,
and neither the authors nor the U.S. Government can assume responsibility for
any such discrepancies or inaccuracies.
The first “Guidebook” appeared in 1989, as part of an orientation program for U.S. citizens embarking on assignments with the Department of Safeguards at the IAEA. It was authored by Alan Labowitz, a private consultant to the International Safeguards Project Office (ISPO) and by Gene Weinstock, a scientist working in ISPO. Over the succeeding thirteen years the Guidebook has been revised at various intervals to reflect changes occurring at the IAEA and in Vienna itself. This eighth edition has updated information about the structure of the IAEA (often referred to in this publication as the “Agency”), has revised data about the U.S. Program of Technical Assistance to IAEA Safeguards (POTAS), has brought many of the financial facts in Chapter 4 up-to-date, and has added information about safeguards agreements in the Appendix. In many places throughout the text websites have been included so that the reader can obtain more detailed information at his/her leisure.
I would like to thank the many people who contributed to the present edition. The ISPO staff made numerous suggestions and provided much updated information. Ms. N. Maier-de Ridder at the Agency furnished detailed data about the benefits plans for personnel and Ms. S. Carlsen, assisting ISPO on a part-time basis, and Ms. M. Rabatin, the ISPO Senior Administrative Assistant, with great patience and forbearance, prepared the manuscript. The authors welcome any suggestions and/or comments that could improve the usefulness of this Guidebook to members of the safeguards community that are planning to work for the IAEA in Vienna.
L.E.
Page No.
Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................i
1. Non-Proliferation......................................................................................................................................................1-1
1.1 History of Efforts to Control Nuclear Energy...................................................................................................1-1
1.1.1 Atoms-for-Peace Proposal............................................................................................................. 1-1
1.1.2 Bilateral Agreements....................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.1.3 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons [NPT]............................................................1-3
1.1.4 Treaty of Tlatelolco......................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.1.5 Treaty of Rarotonga........................................................................................................................ 1-5
1.1.6 The Pelindaba Treaty...................................................................................................................... 1-6
1.1.7 The Antarctic Treaty....................................................................................................................... 1-6
1.1.8 Guidelines for Nuclear Exports........................................................................................................ 1-6
1.2 The United States and International Safeguards.............................................................................................. 1-7
1.2.1 Support of the IAEA ..................................................................................................................... 1-7
1.2.2 The U.S. Mission to the IAEA........................................................................................................ 1-8
1.2.3 NPT and IAEA Safeguards............................................................................................................ 1-9
References for Section 1............................................................................................................................................... 1-10
Bibliography for Section 1............................................................................................................................................. 1-10
2. The IAEA ................................................................................................................................................................ 2-1
2.1 History............................................................................................................................................................ 2-1
2.2 Relationship to the United Nations................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.3 Dual Role of the IAEA.................................................................................................................................... 2-2
2.4 Membership and Politics................................................................................................................................. 2-3
2.5 Organization of the IAEA................................................................................................................................ 2-4
2.5.1 Governing Bodies............................................................................................................................. 2-4
2.5.1.1 Board of Governors.......................................................................................................... 2-4
2.5.1.2 General Conference.......................................................................................................... 2-6
2.5.2 The Secretariat................................................................................................................................ 2-7
2.5.3 Department of Safeguards............................................................................................................... 2-9
2.5.3.1 Operations Divisions........................................................................................................ 2-10
2.5.3.2 Support Divisions............................................................................................................ 2-12
2.6 Safeguards Implementation.......................................................................................................................... 2-13
2.6.1 Basic Authority and Restraints........................................................................................................ 2-13
2.6.2 Safeguards Implementation Report................................................................................................. 2-15
2.6.3 Standing Advisory Group on Safeguards Implementation (SAGSI).................................................. 2-15
References for Section 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 2-16
Bibliography for Section 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 2-16
3. POTAS ................................................................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1 History ............................................................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.2 Management of the Program ............................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.3 Funding ........................................................................................................................................................... 3-3
3.4 Task Selection and Implementation .................................................................................................................. 3-3
3.5 Program Coordination and Review .................................................................................................................. 3-6
3.6 Types of Assistance ........................................................................................................................................ 3-6
3.7 Cost-Free Experts .......................................................................................................................................... 3-8
3.8 Present Status ................................................................................................................................................. 3-9
3.9 Other Member State Support Programs ........................................................................................................... 3-9
4. Working at the IAEA ............................................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 Role ............................................................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Status ............................................................................................................................................................. 4-3
4.2.1 Diplomatic Immunity and Privileges ..................................................................................................... 4-3
4.2.2 Position and Obligations Relative to IAEA, POTAS, and U.S. Government ......................................... 4-5
4.2.2.1 Access to and Treatment of IAEA Confidential Information ................................................... 4-6
4.2.2.2 Security Issues ..................................................................................................................... 4-7
4.2.3 Status of CFEs Relative to IAEA Staff ............................................................................................... 4-7
4.2.3.1 The Work Plan .................................................................................................................... 4-8
4.2.3.2 Quarterly Progress Reports .................................................................................................. 4-8
4.2.3.3 Duties Outside Work Plan .................................................................................................... 4-9
4.2.3.4 The Final Report .................................................................................................................. 4-9
4.2.4 Status of Interns.....................................................................................................................................4-9
4.3 Working Conditions and Remunerations.......................................................................................................... 4-9
4.3.1 Salaries, Allowances, and Grants...................................................................................................... 4-10
4.3.1.1 Salaries............................................................................................................................. 4-10
4.3.1.2 Allowances, Grants, and Subsidies.................................................................................... 4-13
4.3.2 Contract Policy................................................................................................................................ 4-16
4.3.3 Advancement and Promotion Policy ................................................................................................ 4-17
4.3.4 Career Opportunities....................................................................................................................... 4-18
4.3.5 Distribution of Staff by Region and Gender....................................................................................... 4-18
4.3.6 Health Insurance.............................................................................................................................. 4-20
4.3.7 Pensions.......................................................................................................................................... 4-22
4.3.8 Annual Leave, Home Leave, Holidays, and Sick Leave.................................................................... 4-22
4.3.9 Taxes............................................................................................................................................. 4-23
5. Moving to Vienna ................................................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1 Transportation Arrangements ......................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Shipment and Storage of Household and Personal Effects ............................................................................... 5-1
5.2.1 Appliances......................................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.2.2 What to Bring................................................................................................................................... 5-13
5.2.2.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 5-13
5.2.2.2 Clothing ........................................................................................................................... 5-13
5.2.2.3 Household Tools and Kitchen Items ................................................................................. 5-14
5.2.2.4 Over the Counter Medications.......................................................................................... 5-14
5.2.2.5 Documents ...................................................................................................................... 5-14
5.2.2.6 Books ............................................................................................................................. 5-16
5.2.2.7 Pets ................................................................................................................................ 5-17
5.2.2.8 Miscellaneous................................................................................................................... 5-18
5.3 Arrival in Vienna .......................................................................................................................................... 5-18
5.3.1 Transportation from Airport to City .................................................................................................. 5-18
5.3.2 Temporary Accommodations ........................................................................................................... 5-19
5.3.3 Reporting to Work............................................................................................................................ 5-19
5.4 Host Family Program ................................................................................................................................... 5-20
Bibliography for Section 5 ............................................................................................................................................ 5-20
6. Living in Vienna ...................................................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1 Housing ......................................................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 Transportation ............................................................................................................................................... 6-3
6.2.1 Public ................................................................................................................................................ 6-3
6.2.2 Private Autos...................................................................................................................................... 6-5
6.2.2.1 Licensing and Taxes............................................................................................................. 6-5
6.2.2.2 Automobile Insurance.......................................................................................................... 6-6
6.2.2.3 Driving Rules....................................................................................................................... 6-6
6.3 Cost of Living .............................................................................................................................................. 6-7
6.4 Medical Care .............................................................................................................................................. 6-9
6.5 Schools ..................................................................................................................................................... 6-10
6.6 Banking .................................................................................................................................................... 6-16
6.5.1 VIC Child Care Center.................................................................................................................. 6-16
6.6.1 General.......................................................................................................................................... 6-16
6.6.2 Survival "Bankese"......................................................................................................................... 6-17
6.7 Employment Opportunities for the Spouse ................................................................................................. 6-18
6.8 Cultural Life .............................................................................................................................................. 6-18
6.9 Cultural Transition ..................................................................................................................................... 6-19
6.9.1 Austrian History ........................................................................................................................ 6-19
6.9.2 Multinational Character of the IAEA .......................................................................................... 6-20
6.9.3 Language .................................................................................................................................. 6-21
6.9.4 Customs, Cultural Attitudes, and Values .................................................................................... 6-25
6.9.5 Culture Shock, Stress, and Coping ............................................................................................ 6-27
6.9.6 Support and Service Organizations ............................................................................................ 6-29
6.9.7 Religious Services ..................................................................................................................... 6-31
6.10 Leisure Activities ..................................................................................................................................... 6-29
6.10.1 Recreational Organizations at the IAEA .................................................................................... 6-29
6.10.2 Non-IAEA Recreational Organizations in Vienna ...................................................................... 6-31
6.10.3 Children in Vienna .................................................................................................................... 6-31
6.11 Travel ..................................................................................................................................................... 6-33
Bibliography for Section 6 ............................................................................................................................................. 6-33
Appendix A /Safeguards Agreements............................................................................................................................... A-1
Appendix B /Pensions...................................................................................................................................................... B-1
Appendix C /Pets............................................................................................................................................................ C-1
Each year several U.S. citizens - about 10 or so - go to work in the
Department of Safeguards of the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Some go as experts provided to the Agency on a cost-free basis by the
U.S. Government - so-called "cost-free experts" or CFEs -
and some as regular Agency staff members. For many appointees, this
is their first experience in living and working abroad. In addition,
they will be working in a unique environment, an international, UN-affiliated
agency responsible for the promotion and control of the peaceful uses
of nuclear energy around the world. Their positions will, therefore,
have both political and technical aspects. From a personal and a professional
standpoint, as well as that of U.S. non-proliferation policy, it is
important that the new staff member perform effectively in this environment.
To help assure this, the orientation program of which this guidebook
is a part, was developed under the auspices of the U.S. Program of Technical
Assistance to IAEA Safeguards (POTAS). Its purpose is to assist the
new appointee to prepare for the move to Vienna and working at the IAEA.
Recognizing the importance of the impact of family adjustment to the
new environment on job performance, the orientation program is directed
to both the staff member and spouse.
The guidebook is intended to be used as both a reference and, for some, preparation for a series of oral briefings in Washington, D.C., which is given to new appointees and their spouses over a period of 2-3 days. The following are the six main subject headings in the guidebook:
1. Non-Proliferation
2. The IAEA
3. POTAS
4. Working at the IAEA
5. Moving to Vienna
6. Living in Vienna
If you will be
attending the oral briefings, please note that topics 1-3 are covered
in the briefings by officials of the U.S. Government and personnel of
the International Safeguards Project Office (ISPO), which is in charge
of the technical management of POTAS and is based at Brookhaven National
Laboratory. Briefings on Topics 4-6 will be given by persons who have
lived in Vienna and are thoroughly versed in both the practical and
cultural aspects of life in the Austrian capital. Adapting to the cultural
transition of the move to Vienna will be addressed by an expert in the
area of what is termed "culture shock".
As seen from this
list of main subject headings and the more detailed list in the Table
of Contents, this guidebook covers a wide range of topics. Since the
IAEA offers an indoctrination course for all new hires which includes
many of the same topics, it was decided to emphasize here and in the
briefings those topics which the Agency of necessity could not cover,
and also those which would best assist in the advance preparations of
the new staff member and in the initial transition phase of the move
to Vienna. It also was recognized that since the Agency course is scheduled
at 10 to12 week intervals, considerable time might elapse between arrival
of the new staff member and the next offering of the course; hence,
even if certain topics were covered again and in more detail in the
Agency program it might still be valuable to introduce them in the POTAS
briefings.
No guidebook of
manageable size can cover all the topics listed in adequate depth.
Therefore, a list of references is given which the prospective staff
member and spouse should consult for more detailed, authoritative information.
In addition, several basic documents are provided gratis along with
the guidebook. These include IAEA reports describing the Agency's role
and safeguards system, documents with information on working conditions
and administrative matters at the IAEA, a book on Austria by a knowledgeable
American living there, an excellent, well-illustrated "Insight Guide"
to Vienna, and the inestimable practical guide,
Living in Vienna, a gold mine of information for newcomers to
the city, published by the American Women's Association. This guidebook
has freely used that work, mainly by drawing the reader's attention
to certain specific topics it covers. The new staff member and spouse
can do no better than to read the original, cover to cover.
The initial impetus for the design of the orientation program and much subsequent encouragement and advice was provided by Dr. Kenneth Sanders, formerly of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency and currently the Director, International Safeguards Division of the Office of Arms Control and Non-proliferation of the U.S. Department of Energy. We thank him for his continued interest and support.
1.
Non-Proliferation
1.1 History of Efforts to Control Nuclear Energy
1.1.1 Atoms-for-Peace Proposal
During World War II and for almost ten years thereafter, the U.S. Government
followed a policy of secrecy about its nuclear energy activities. That
policy allowed only limited exceptions for sharing information on certain
military-related programs with Canada and the United Kingdom because
of their cooperation during the war. The general policy of secrecy
was intended to deny information relevant to the production of nuclear
weapons to everyone domestic or foreign, except those authorized by
the U.S. Government to receive it.
The United States,
Canada, and the United Kingdom issued a joint declaration in November
1945, calling upon the United Nations (UN) to set up a commission to
make specific proposals for preventing the use of atomic energy for
destructive purposes, while promoting the exchange of basic scientific
information for peaceful purposes. No progress was made on any proposals
for international control until December 1953, when President Eisenhower
delivered his famous address to the UN General Assembly which has become
known as the "Atoms for Peace" speech.
President Eisenhower
pointed out that information required for producing nuclear weapons
was already known to Canada, the United Kingdom, and the USSR, in addition
to the United States, and that such information would eventually become
known to others - "possibly all others". He outlined the
fearful potential for "hideous damage" as a result of a surprise
attack with atomic weapons against even the most powerful defense.
He proposed that the "governments principally involved" should
make joint contributions from their stockpiles of natural uranium and
fissionable materials to an International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
to be set up under the aegis of the UN. The Agency would be responsible
for the "impounding, storage and protection" of the contributed
materials and would devise methods for allocating the fissionable material
to peaceful purposes.
The amount of nuclear
material contributed to the IAEA has never been substantial and, thus,
the primary objective set forth in the speech was not achieved. Nevertheless,
the establishment of the IAEA and the evolution of its safeguards function
(discussed in Section 2) has made an enormous contribution to efforts
to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons, while fostering international
cooperation in the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
The speech at the
UN was followed in the United States by the passage by Congress of the
Atomic Energy Act of 1954, which permitted, for the first time, general
exchanges with other governments of nuclear materials, equipment, and
information on the peaceful uses of atomic energy, under specified
conditions and formal agreements.
There is no doubt
that the Atoms for Peace program carried out by the United States pursuant
to the 1954 Act changed
the course of history. Among other features, the program resulted in
the conclusion of bilateral agreements for cooperation with about 20
governments before the establishment of the IAEA in 1957.
1.1.2 Bilateral Agreements
Although it was not required by the 1954 Act, the Executive Branch,
and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (USAEC) in particular, decided
that nuclear materials and equipment provided by the United States under
agreements for cooperation in the peaceful uses of atomic energy should
be subject to safeguards, including inspection by U.S. personnel.*
The purpose of such inspections was to verify that the material and
equipment were being used in the recipient country only for peaceful
purposes, in accordance with the guarantee given by that government
in the agreement for cooperation. The broad rights for U.S. inspectors
included in such agreements represented an unprecedented intrusion into
the sovereignty of the recipient governments.
The USAEC established
a small staff of full-time inspectors who planned and carried out the
inspections pursuant to the bilateral agreements for cooperation. The
experience gained by the United States in carrying out its safeguards
function under bilateral agreements was instrumental in the design and
evolution of the safeguards function of the IAEA. That process proceeded
cautiously with the adoption by the IAEA's Board of Governors in 1961
of INFCIRC/26 (which addressed only small research reactors) to the
extensive system set forth in INFCIRC/66/REV. 23, completed
in 1968, and INFCIRC/1534, published in 1972.
As IAEA safeguards
operations became sufficiently codified and active, the United States
began to implement a provision in many of its bilateral agreements calling
for the transfer of responsibility to the IAEA, by mutual agreement
of the parties, for the safeguarding of materials and equipment supplied
by the United States to the other government.
The arrangements
for the IAEA's assumption of responsibility for safeguards were formalized
in agreements to which the two governments and the IAEA are parties,
known as "safeguards transfer" or "trilateral"
agreements. In the case of a non- nuclear-weapon state party to the
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons(NPT), the trilateral
agreement was suspended in favor of the safeguards agreement by that
government with the IAEA, required by the NPT. Thus, for many years,
the United States has not carried out safeguards on materials and equipment
it supplies to other countries for peaceful purposes. However, it retains
the right to do so if IAEA safeguards are not being applied for any
reason in the recipient country.
1.1.3 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
By the mid-1960s, it became apparent that in many countries nuclear
energy was being increasingly considered as a practical, economical
means for producing electricity in central generating plants. It was
recognized that if such applications came into wide-spread use, fissionable
material - particularly plutonium - would become abundantly available.
While the mere availability of fissionable material might not lead
a government to seek to produce nuclear weapons, it could facilitate
a decision to do so on political or military grounds.
At this time, a
Limited Test Ban Treaty, negotiated in 1963 by the United States and
the USSR, had become widely accepted. Furthermore, at the IAEA, the
USSR had abandoned its hostility and suspicion of the Agency's safeguards
activities in favor of supporting and encouraging their evolution and
implementation.
The coincidence
of these developments, together with other political trends, led both
countries to undertake the negotiation of a treaty seeking to inhibit
the spread of nuclear weapons to countries beyond the five that had
already demonstrated their possession. Negotiations were completed in
the spring of 1968, when the text was endorsed by the UN General Assembly.
The Treaty was signed on July 1 of that year by the United States, USSR,
United Kingdom and about 60 other governments, but not China or France
(they acceded to the NPT in 1992).
The Treaty established
two categories of possible parties: 1) nuclear-weapon states, defined
such that only the five mentioned above could qualify, and 2) non-nuclear-weapon
states, i.e., all states other than those five.
According to the
treaty, a nuclear-weapon state party to the Treaty undertakes (Article
I) not to transfer to any recipient nuclear weapons or nuclear explosive
devices or control over them, and not to assist, encourage, or induce
any non-nuclear-weapon state to manufacture or acquire them. A non-nuclear-weapon
state party undertakes (Article II) not to receive nuclear weapons or
other nuclear explosive devices or the transfer of control over them,
not to manufacture or otherwise acquire them and not to receive any
assistance in their manufacture. One of the most controversial provisions
in the negotiation of the NPT was Article III under which each non-nuclear-weapon
state party to the Treaty undertakes to enter into an agreement with
the IAEA for the application of the Agency's safeguards on all source
or special fissionable material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear
activities, wherever carried out.
Among the difficulties
in negotiating Article III was the prior existence of EURATOM, an organization
established by the Treaty of Rome to apply safeguards in all the states
of the European Community, originally consisting of six members: Belgium,
France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. Since then,
nine other states have joined the community, which is now called the
European Union: Austria, Denmark, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Portugal,
Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Principles for reconciling the
two safeguards systems - EURATOM's and the IAEA's - and for establishing
relations between the IAEA and a regional association of states instead
of with individual states had to be worked out. These problems eventually
were satisfactorily resolved by the conclusion of an agreement providing
for joint conduct of inspections of EURATOM facilities by IAEA and EURATOM
inspectors, while preserving the basic principle of independent IAEA
verification.
A more general
objection by many industrialized non-nuclear- weapon states, including
members of the European Community, was that the nuclear industries of
nuclear-weapon states party to the NPT, since they were not required
to be under IAEA safeguards, would have a commercial advantage in international
competition with industries in non-nuclear-weapon states.
That objection
was effectively overcome by parallel voluntary offers by the United
States and the United Kingdom to permit the IAEA, at such time that
it was applying its safeguards generally in non-nuclear-weapon states
pursuant to the NPT, to apply its safeguards in all U.S. (and UK), nuclear
activities, excluding only those significant to national security.
Each offer is being implemented pursuant to an agreement with the IAEA,
under which the IAEA is free to apply its safeguards, for example, to
any of more than 200 activities in the United States. In the mid-nineties,
the U.S. Government went one step further, in allowing access by the
Agency to excess fissile material that had been removed from weapons
stocks. China, France, and the Russian Federation also have concluded
agreements with the IAEA under which the IAEA is to apply safeguards
in specified facilities designated by the respective government.
The NPT, which
took effect in 1970, had a 25-year lifetime. Accordingly, in 1995 the
NPT Review and Extension Conference was held and in May of that year
the treaty was extended indefinitely. Today, there are nearly 190 parties
to the treaty.
The states
not party to the NPT are Cuba, India, Israel, and Pakistan.*
Brazil and Argentina which recently acceded to the treaty, previously
had agreed to a system of mutual inspection of all their nuclear facilities,
setting up for that purpose an organization called ABACC, from the Spanish
initials of the name, Argentine-Brazilian Agency for Accounting and Control
of Nuclear Materials. A four-party agreement between the IAEA, ABACC,
and those two countries for safeguards conducted jointly by the IAEA
and ABACC (in an arrangement somewhat resembling that between the IAEA
and EURATOM), entered into force in 1994.
The NPT is the
main multi-lateral agreement that aims to limit the spread of nuclear
weapons, but not the only one. There are several regional treaties,
such as those of Tlatelolco, Rarotonga, Pelindaba, Antarctica, and,
as mentioned above, EURATOM. These will be briefly described below.
Finally, several bi-lateral agreements also are in effect, notably those
between the United States and EURATOM, the United States and Japan,
and the United States and Australia.
1.1.4 Treaty of Tlatelolco
Before the NPT was negotiated, Latin American governments, led by Brazil
and Mexico, had addressed the possibility of establishing that region
as a nuclear-weapon- free-zone. The text of the Treaty for the Prohibition
of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America was completed in 1967, and entered
into force in 1968. It became known as the Treaty of Tlatelolco, the
district of Mexico City where the key negotiations had taken place.
The 38 states (including
the five original weapons states) party to the Treaty undertake to use
their nuclear material and facilities exclusively for peaceful purposes,
not to acquire nuclear weapons, nor to permit them on their territories.
Each party also undertakes, among other provisions, to enter into an
agreement with the IAEA for the application of safeguards to its nuclear
activities.
1.1.5 Treaty of Rarotonga
This agreement, also known as the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty,
prohibits the manufacture, acquisition, stationing, or testing of nuclear
explosive devices in the territories of the parties, or the dumping
of radioactive wastes into the waters of the zone. The treaty also
requires the signatories to apply full scope IAEA safeguards to all
of their peaceful nuclear activities. The treaty went into force at
the end of 1986 with 16 states and freely associated governments presently
party to the treaty (including Australia and the five weapons states).
1.1.6 The Pelindaba Treaty
The treaty, signed in Egypt in April 1996, prohibits its parties from
conducting research, developing, stockpiling, testing, stationing, acquiring,
possessing or controlling any explosive nuclear device in Africa. It
also prohibits the dumping of radioactive wastes within the nuclear
weapon-free zone. Like the other treaties discussed above, it obligates
its parties to conclude comprehensive safeguards agreements with the
IAEA. Currently there are 50 signatories.
1.1.7 The Antarctic Treaty
The first regional nuclear weapon-free zone was established in June 1961
by the Antarctic Treaty. It prohibits nuclear explosives, disposal
of radioactive waste, and any military uses of the region, defined to
be the area below the 60 degree South parallel. The Antarctic Treaty
has an unlimited duration and stipulates that the region shall be used
solely for peaceful purposes. There are currently 41 parties to the
treaty, including the five nuclear-weapons states.
1.1.8 Guidelines for Nuclear Exports
In
Article III of the NPT, each party, whether a nuclear-weapon state
or not, undertakes not to provide nuclear material or specially designed
equipment for producing or using special fissionable material to any
non-nuclear-weapon state unless the nuclear material is subject to IAEA
safeguards. To ensure a minimum standard of conduct by NPT parties
in discharging that obligation, two groups evolved: the Zangger Committee,
and the Nuclear Suppliers Group.
Zangger Committee
Sometimes known
as the NPT Explorers Committee, the Zangger Committee now has 31 member
states. In 1974, the committee developed guidelines for implementing
Article III, including lists of materials and items of equipment which
could be transferred to a non-nuclear weapon state only if the special
nuclear material was subject to safeguards in the recipient country
under an agreement by its government with the IAEA. The document is
revised periodically and forms the IAEA’s INFCIRC/2095 series.
Nuclear Suppliers Group
This group, also
referred to as the London Suppliers Group, has 35 nuclear-supplier nations.
It was convened in the mid-1970s, following the detonation of a nuclear
device by India in 1974. A main reason for forming this group was to
include France, a major nuclear-supplier nation that was not then a party
to the NPT. The group made public its guidelines in 1978 which paralleled
those of the Zangger Committee but went further by including items of
technology, by calling for restraint in the transfer of sensitive nuclear-technology,
and by specifying levels of physical-protection measures to be applied
to the listed nuclear material and facilities by the recipient country’s
government. The documentation of the committee’s work comprises the
Agency’s INFCIRC/2546 series.
Both groups of
suppliers continue to function as vehicles for consultation on and refinement
of, nuclear-export policies. Their efforts have made important contribution
toward avoiding the possibility that safeguards requirements and non-proliferation
assurances required for exports would become elements of commercial
competition.
1.2 United States and International Safeguards
1.2.1 Support of the IAEA
As might have been
expected from the IAEA's origin in President Eisenhower's initiative,
the United States has been active and influential in the organization,
beginning with the drafting of its Statute and continuing throughout
its more than 40 years of operation. While supporting a broad range
of its activities, the United States has been particularly interested
in the development of IAEA safeguards. Its experience with bilateral
safeguards had demonstrated the advantages of an international safeguards
system for assuring other governments that peaceful nuclear activities
in a country remained peaceful. Moreover, only an international system
can provide the basis for establishing the minimum standards of conduct
necessary to permit international trade in nuclear materials, equipment,
and technology. The alternative - each exporting state applying its
own version of safeguards, or none at all - would at best have been
chaotic, and, at worst, would have resulted in the decline of standards
of export conduct to the lowest common denominator. In either case,
the cause of non-proliferation would likely have suffered.
Predictably, governments
have differed in the importance each attached to the various functions
of the Agency, in accordance with its national interests. Nevertheless,
and to a greater extent than in other international organizations, the
IAEA's Board of Governors, its policy-making body, has been able to
maintain a tradition of making decisions by consensus, rather than by
formal voting. Undoubtedly, legitimate differences of view will continue
to be expressed about the philosophy and execution of various Agency
activities, not excluding its safeguards function. For example, when
the matter of safeguards to be applied to all peaceful nuclear activities
in each non-nuclear-weapon state party to the NPT was discussed in 1970,
representatives of some industrialized states advocated an arrangement
whereby the IAEA would merely check the functioning of national or regional
safeguards systems to assure that they were performing satisfactorily.
Under that approach, successfully resisted by the United States and
others, only random inspections would have been carried out by the IAEA
and would not have been able to make independent judgements on diversions.
Currently, there
are different views about the amount and kinds of information to be
made available to the member states (or to the general public) on the
results of IAEA safeguards operations. Some states, in the interest
of preserving the credibility of IAEA safeguards, advocate releasing
as much information as possible. Others resist and oppose efforts to
amend the provisions in the Agency's safeguards system and in its agreements
that ensure the confidentiality of information obtained by the IAEA
in applying its safeguards.
Disagreements also
continue about the costs of safeguards and which members should bear
what portion of those costs, the process of designating inspectors,
their training and duties, the reliability of safeguards equipment,
and other aspects of the IAEA's safeguards activities.
That is not to
say that the IAEA is in disarray or that it is paralyzed by indecision.
The point being made is that, at any given time, serious issues are
being debated by member states about Agency activities. As in any
bureaucracy, some of those issues are debated among the staff as well.
New staff members should be aware that many of the topics being discussed
are complex and come with a history. Accordingly, it would be well
to seek out the relevant information, as well as opinions from a variety
of experienced sources, before reaching a personal conclusion.
1.2.2 The U.S. Mission to the IAEA
Like many other members of the IAEA, the U.S. government maintains an
office in Vienna to provide day-to-day contact with, and representation
to, the IAEA. Such duties are carried out for most member states by
embassy personnel, in addition to their work in connection with relations
with Austria. In the case of the United States and some other governments,
including the UK, the Russian Federation, and Germany, separate diplomatic
offices or "missions" represent their interests to the IAEA
and the UN-related agencies (principally, the United Nations Industrial
Development Organization or UNIDO) in Vienna. The U.S. Mission is located
at Obersteinergasse 11 in the 19th district, a popular residential area
northwest of the city center, within easy reach of the Vienna International
Center (VIC). The local telephone number is 31-339. (The U.S. Embassy
is located at Boltzmanngasse 16 in the 9th district). The Mission is
headed by an Ambassador appointed by the President and confirmed by
the U.S. Senate. He or she is assisted by a staff of officers of whom
four deal exclusively with IAEA matters, while some of the others are
assigned to deal with certain aspects of all of the international organizations,
including the IAEA. The Mission provides liaison with the IAEA, evaluates
and reports on IAEA plans and activities, consults with the representatives
of other governments, and in other ways advances the interests of the
U.S. government in the IAEA. All officers in the U.S. Mission are employees
of the Department of State. Some will be Foreign Service Officers or
other career employees of the Department of State, while others may
be on loan to the Department from another agency, such as the Department
of Energy (DOE), or the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The Mission
reports to, and receives instructions from, the Department of State.
Within the Department, several offices have major interests in the IAEA,
including the Bureau of International Organizations, the Bureau of Oceans
and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs, and the Office
of the Ambassador-at-Large for Non-Proliferation. The Department of
Energy and the NRC also have continuing interests in many IAEA activities,
are kept informed of developments, and are consulted by the Department
of State in preparing its instructions to the Mission. The ISPO liaison
person in Vienna also is attached to the Mission.
Officers of the
Mission can be found frequently at the IAEA, meeting with staff members
on Agency matters or in topical meetings. The Mission will be particularly
busy preceding and during meetings of the Board of Governors, its committees,
and the General Conference.
It is advisable
for newly arrived U.S.-citizen IAEA staff appointees and cost-free experts
to introduce themselves to one or more officers of the Mission, perhaps
by taking the initiative to meet for lunch at the VIC. Such a meeting
would provide an opportunity for the staff member to obtain information
about the Mission personnel and their individual functions. Thereby,
the staff member could learn who in the Mission might be interested
in dealing with a particular matter in the future, about which the Mission
could be legitimately consulted.
1.2.3 NPT and IAEA Safeguards
The controversy over including in the NPT the requirement for mandatory
IAEA safeguards in connection with all peaceful nuclear activities in
each non-nuclear-weapon state party to the treaty was noted in Sec.
1.1.3. The effect on the IAEA of the inclusion of that provision, and
its implementation for the many non-nuclear-weapon states which joined
the treaty, has been revolutionary. It changed the Agency from a small
technical organization with an annual budget of less than $10 million
and a staff of several hundred, to a highly visible one, with a budget
of $275 million in 1998 and about 2,200 employees (including approximately
1750 regular full-time staff and 450 consultants, cost-free experts, and
others serving on a reimbursable basis). Safeguards costs alone were
$95 million.
With high visibility has come increased scrutiny from all sides - skeptics and enthusiasts - and complaints either that IAEA safeguards were too intrusive, that the money would better be spent on assistance to less-developed countries, or conversely, that safeguards were ineffective since they could not prevent a state accumulating large quantities of plutonium.
The experience in Iraq and the DPRK prompted the Agency to adopt techniques beyond traditional methods. These include broader access to relevant information from all sources, and the introduction of environmental sampling, remote and unattended monitoring, and challenge inspections.
1. Congressional
Record, Vol. 100, Jan. 7, 1954, pp. 61-63.
2. INFCIRC/26:
The Agency's Safeguards System, IAEA, Vienna, 1961.
3. INFCIRC/66/Rev.
2: The Agency's Safeguards System (1965, as Provisionally Extended
in 1966 and 1968), IAEA,
Vienna, Sept. 16, 1968.
4. INFCIRC/153 Corrected:
The Structure and Content of Agreements Between the Agency and States
Required in Connection with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons, IAEA, Vienna, 1972.
5. INFCIRC/209:
Communications Received from Members Regarding the Export of Nuclear
Material and of Certain Categories of Equipment and Other Material,
IAEA, Vienna, 3 Sept. 1974 (Numerous addenda and modifications since
then).
6. INFCIRC/254:
Guidelines for Nuclear Transfers, IAEA, Vienna, 1978.
A Short History
of Non-Proliferation, IAEA, Vienna, 1976.
Mason Willrich,
Non-Proliferation Treaty: Framework for Nuclear Arms Control,
The Michie Company, Charlottesville, VA. 1969.
David Fischer and Paul Szasz, Safeguarding the Atom: A Critical Appraisal, Taylor & Francis, London and Philadelphia, 1985.
2. The IAEA
2.1 History
Within months after President Eisenhower's December 1953 address to the UN General Assembly, the United States began consulting with other governments to establish an international agency. An initial draft of a Statute (i.e., charter) for such an agency was drawn up in March 1954. Two-and-a-half years and several drafts later, a Statute acceptable to all parties was finally produced and was signed on October 1956 by 70 governments. In June 1957, the U.S. Senate gave its advice and consent to ratification and a bill providing for U.S. participation (P.L. 85‑177, 71 Stat. 453) was enacted shortly thereafter. In late July 1957, the Statute had been ratified by the requisite number (18) of governments and the IAEA formally came into being. The number of Member States increased steadily since then and currently stands at 134.
The IAEA never fulfilled the purpose of establishing and administering a
significant pool of nuclear material, as proposed by President Eisenhower (see
Sec. 1.1.1), despite initial U.S. contributions of enriched uranium and a
pledge to match all other contributions. Among other factors, the assumption
that uranium raw material and fissionable material would remain scarce and
thereby limit exploitation of atomic energy for peaceful purposes proved
wrong. Nevertheless, the IAEA, as foreseen in its Statute, had other functions
to carry out, such as the exchange and dissemination of information, the
provision of training
and technical assistance, in addition to the application of safeguards.
2.2 Relationship to the United Nations
The IAEA is not a specialized agency of the UN, such as the World Health
Organization (WHO) or the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), but rather
is an autonomous and independent body. Members of the UN are not automatically
members of the IAEA, or vice versa. To become a member of the IAEA, a
government must adopt the Statute of the IAEA and apply to, and be accepted by,
the IAEA General Conference as a member upon the recommendation of the Board of
Governors. Moreover, the IAEA is funded by direct assessment of its members,
rather than through the budget of the United Nations or any of its organs.
At the same time, the IAEA Statute
(Article III B) requires the IAEA to "Conduct its activities in accordance with
the purposes and principles of the United Nations to promote peace and
international cooperation ..." and to "Submit reports on its activities
annually to the General Assembly of the United Nations and, when appropriate,
to the Security Council ..."
Article XVI of the Statute authorizes the Board of Governors, with the approval of the General Conference, to provide for consideration by the Agency, resolutions of the General Assembly and other UN organs, and the submission of reports, when requested, on resulting action by the IAEA.
The Agency concluded such agreements with the U.N. and also has engaged in
jointly funded and staffed activities with a number of specialized agencies and
programs of the UN, such as WHO, FAO, UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) and UN Environment Program (UNEP). It also has
administered, for a fee, projects of the UN Development Program (UNDP).
2.3 Dual Role of the IAEA
Article II of its Statute
sets forth a dual role for the IAEA:
"The Agency shall seek to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world. It shall ensure, so far as it is able, that assistance provided by it or at its request or under its supervision or control is not used in such a way as to further any military purpose".
Before the advent of the NPT, all but a handful of IAEA staff were concerned exclusively with "promotional" activities; there were few situations in which IAEA was called upon to apply safeguards. During that early period, however, important steps were taken to codify and systematize the safeguards system. During the 1960s, the Board of Governors adopted a series of documents defining the Agency’s safeguards function. The current version of one important series, INFCIRC/66/Rev.2 1, remains the controlling document for IAEA’s application of safeguards on individual facilities in countries not obligated by treaty or otherwise to place all of their facilities under IAEA safeguards.
The great increase in safeguards personnel, from 220 in 1959 to about 600 now, occurred during the 1970s as demand was generated by adherence to the NPT of many non-nuclear-weapon states engaged in significant peaceful nuclear activities. By 2002 the regular budget of the Department of Safeguards totaled over $80 million.
Under the special formula for assessments to fund safeguards activities which has been in effect since 1972, members having the lowest per-capita national income bear only 2.5 percent of total safeguards costs, while the remaining 97.5 percent is borne by members having the highest per-capita national income. Thus, as a practical matter, the wealthier members pay for the lion’s share of safeguards’ costs.
The dual roles of
promoting nuclear energy and applying safeguards also have prompted the
criticism that in pursuing both, the Agency is faced with a conflict of
interest of the kind that eventually resulted in the splitting up of the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission into two separate agencies (DOE and NRC). However, it
is important to note several differences between the IAEA and the U.S.
agencies: (1) the IAEA is a voluntary organization with no enforcement or
regulatory powers, (2) a large part of the "promotional" activity is in support
of non‑power applications of atomic energy e.g., the use of radio‑isotopes in
medicine, agriculture, and hydrology, training in nuclear physics in developing
countries, and (3) for many members, the technical assistance is the quid
pro quo for accepting safeguards. Any attempt at this stage to split the
IAEA into a regulatory agency and a promotional one would undoubtedly encounter
intense opposition.
2.4 Membership and Politics
For admission to the IAEA
a government must adopt the IAEA Statute and be accepted as a member by the
IAEA General Conference upon recommendation by the Board of Governors. The
applicant is not required to be a member of the UN, nor does membership in the
UN confer any benefit or obligation with respect to the IAEA. For example,
Switzerland has been a member of the IAEA since the Agency’s inception but only
recently (2002) joined the U.N. On the other hand, the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea is not an IAEA member state, but does belong (since 1991) to
the UN (and is also a party to the NPT).
The IAEA has emerged from
relative obscurity as a technical organization under the domination of
atomic‑energy specialists from its member states to become one of those forums
in which international politics are played. In conjunction with that
development, members of the Agency have become associated with a number of
groups ‑ unofficial ones but having genuine political agendas. The largest of
those groups is the Group of 77, or G‑77, which was formed in 1964 at the UN
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) to coordinate and expound the
views of the developing countries on economic development, and to have those
views reflected in the UN system. Since 1970, the G‑77 (which, includes more
than 100 countries at the UN) has sought to use its influence toward
establishing a New International Economic Order in all international
organizations.
This effort includes the
increased representation of G‑77 members in the governing bodies of the
organizations, such as the Board of Governors, and in the staff, particularly
in senior positions. In the IAEA, the G‑77 also seeks to increase the resources
available for technical assistance, to avoid restrictions or conditions on its
availability, and generally, to shift the burden of financing the Agency's
activities to other members. The most significant effect of the G‑77 seen to
date in the Agency may be the introduction of bloc voting on many issues, as
opposed to the consensus process which was traditional in the Agency.
There are also regional
sub‑groups of the G‑77 in the Agency ‑ one for Latin American members, and
another for members from Africa. On the other hand, there is the Geneva Group,
made up of the major contributors to international organizations, who consult
on budget policy, and the West European and Other Group (WEOG) which includes
Australia, Japan, Canada, and the United States. While each group has its own
agenda, the interests of two or more may coincide on a particular issue.
2.5 Organization of the IAEA
Figure 2-1 shows the
organizational structure of the IAEA. The Secretariat is comprised of six
departments, as depicted in the Figure, and is discussed in Section 2.5.2.
2.5.1 Governing Bodies
The policy-making organs
of the IAEA are the General Conference and the Board of Governors. Working
jointly, these two bodies decide the Agency’s program, specify its budget and
appoint its Director General. The General Conference is comprised of
representatives of all of its 134 member states and meets annually in
September. The Board of Governors has 35 members; 13 are designated by the
Board and 22 are elected by the General Conference. The Board of Governors
meets three times per year, usually in November/December, March and June.
2.5.1.1 Board of Governors
The Board of Governors
was designed to be the most important body of the Agency. The Statute assigns
more functions and authority to the Board of Governors than is done for the
policy‑making organs of other international organizations. It formulates the
annual budget, which the General Conference can only approve in toto
or reject, sending it back to the Board of Governors (which it has never done).
The Board appoints the Director General, with the approval of the General
Conference, recommends to the General Conference applicants for membership,
authorizes the Director General to enter into specific agreements for projects
and safeguards, approves the designation of staff members to serve as
safeguards inspectors, approves the issuance of safety codes and standards,
reviews the implementation of safeguards and other programs, and submits an
annual report to the General Conference covering all of the Agency's
activities. In short, the Board, in the words of Article VI.F of the Statute,
has the "authority to carry out the functions of the Agency in accordance with
this Statute, subject to its responsibilities to the General Conference as
provided in this Statute."
The composition of the
Board of Governors was much debated during the drafting of the Statute. What
emerged was a compromise between those members that were either advanced in
nuclear technology or had uranium deposits, and those with neither. The
35‑member Board is currently selected as follows:
Ten members "most
advanced in the technology of atomic energy, including the production of source
material" are designated each June, for a one-year term, by the outgoing Board.
The outgoing Board then
designates three more members from "most advanced states" that did not produce
a designee in the first ten, who will also serve for one year. Traditionally,
the distinction between the first 10 and remaining three designees is blurred.
In addition to the 13
one‑year members designated by the Board, the General Conference each year
elects eleven members to serve two‑year terms. The twenty‑two members elected
over each two‑year cycle are distributed, according to a formula set forth in
Article VI of the Statute. Usually, there is agreement among the members in
various geographic regions as to which candidates will be elected to the Board.
The notable exception is the Middle East region; Israel has never been
nominated for election to the Board.
2.5.1.2 General Conference
The General Conference is composed of all member states and meets each
September, normally in Vienna. Each Conference elects its President and other
officers. Among the limited functions of the Conference set forth in Article V
of the Statute is the approval (or rejection) of the budget for the forthcoming
calendar- year. When required, the Conference approves the appointment of the
Director General (for a four‑year term) and approves applications for
membership. It considers the Board's annual report on the activities of the
Agency and approves the reports to the UN. These actions are largely pro
forma and could probably be accomplished in a one‑day session, yet the
Conference always has been scheduled for at least five days and, for many
years, met for ten workdays. The apparently leisurely pace has provided an
important opportunity for delegations, which include the heads and key staff of
the national atomic energy organizations, to confer on bilateral matters of
interest. The meeting is organized with a Plenary Session and the Committee of
the whole conducted in parallel. The plenary allows each member state to
present a statement and then addresses traditional agenda items. The Committee
of the whole provides a forum for the debate of political and technical issues.
The most influential formal actions by the Conference have been based upon its authority, set forth in Article V, to propose matters for consideration by the Board and to request reports from the Board on any matter relating to the function of the Agency.
2.5.2 The Secretariat
The staff of the Agency is commonly referred to as the Secretariat. It is headed by the Director General (referred to informally as the DG) who is appointed to a four‑year term by the Board of Governors with the approval of the General Conference. There are six Deputy Directors General (DDGs), one over each of the following Departments: Management, Technical Cooperation, Nuclear Energy, Nuclear Safety and Security, Nuclear Sciences and Applications, and Safeguards. (See Figure 2‑2.)
Appointments of DDGs (normally for five years subject to extension) are the subject of consultations by the DG with interested member states and finally with the Board of Governors in closed session; i.e., only the Governors present.
Each Department is made up of divisions which are further divided into sections; some sections are broken down further into units. Division directors (grade D‑1 or D‑2) are appointed for an initial term of three years, subject to renewal for a two‑year term. The DG consults the Board of Governors in closed session on such appointments. Currently, there are 24 divisions.
Section heads, of which there are almost 100, are at the P‑5 grade and are appointed for the standard three‑year plus two‑year terms. However, some appointments have been extended for successive five‑year terms or, in fewer cases, individuals have been granted long-term contracts, which is the equivalent of permanent status.
Other staff members are classified as either professional (grades P‑1 through P‑5), general service (GS, which includes secretarial, clerical and other support personnel), or maintenance and operating (M & O). The distribution of these three categories in the IAEA staff is generally about 40%, 55%, and 5%, respectively, totaling about 1650 people.
In addition to the staff who fill the positions identified above, the Agency employs other personnel, usually with qualifications similar to those for positions in the professional category, under other arrangements. The largest number are hired under Special Service Agreements for short‑term assignments (weeks or months) as experts for Technical Assistance work in developing member states. Others hired under Special Service Agreements include "cost‑free" experts; i.e., individuals provided by member states for specific functions or tasks, at the request of the Agency and whose salaries and allowances are reimbursed to the Agency by the Member State. Such cost‑free experts are commonly found in the Department of Safeguards, many from the United States, where they normally serve two or more years. A few consultants also will be found at the Agency at any time, usually engaged in a defined study or other specific task, on contracts with terms of less than one year. These additional personnel amount to about 550, bringing the overall total in the secretariat to 2200.
Figure 2-2
ORGANIZATIONAL CHART
The United States has made an effort to maintain a reasonable numerical representation among the positions subject to geographic distribution, in keeping with its status as the member state having the highest assessment. The U.S. assessment is about one quarter of the total IAEA budget and so is entitled to one quarter of the authorized geographically distributed posts. However, currently U.S. citizens account for only about 14% of the professional positions.
2.5.3 Department of Safeguards
The Deputy Director General of the Department of Safeguards (DDG-SG) is responsible for applying safeguards under agreements to which the IAEA is a party. This responsibility involves establishing safeguards approaches and then implementing safeguards practices so as to achieve safeguards objectives effectively and efficiently. The Office of the DDG-SG includes staff to assist in preparing the annual Safeguards Implementation Report to the IAEA Board of Governors, in developing new criteria for implementing and evaluating safeguards, and in preparing management, personnel and financial policies for the Department. The staff of the department is currently almost 600.
There are six divisions within the Department of Safeguards, three of which
(Operations A, B, and C) are responsible for carrying out the IAEA's
independent on-site verifications (see Fig. 2-3), and account for
three-quarters of the regular budget of the Department. The remaining three
divisions (referred to as "support divisions”) provide the equipment,
information services, planning, training and analysis assistance and other
support required by the operations divisions.
2.5.3.1 Operations Divisions
The three operations divisions have equal status and responsibility for applying safeguards in the countries assigned to them. The present structure reflects both functional and geographic considerations. In general, Operations A covers the Far Eastern, Southeast Asian, and Austral-Asian countries, Operations B includes Africa, North and South America, the Middle East, and Norway and Switzerland (non-EU countries). Operations C operates in the European Union countries, the Russian Federation, and former Eastern Bloc countries. About half of the personnel in the department work in these operations divisions.
Each operations division is further divided into four sections, each with different functions. For example, in Operations A, Section OAP is in charge of procedures and support ‑ that is, for the adaptation and implementation of procedures used by inspectors during their verifications. Section OA1 is responsible for the verification of "item" facilities in Japan; facilities such as reactors, in which nuclear material exists only in discrete, identifiable form, such as fuel assemblies. Section OA2 is responsible for Japanese bulk‑handling facilities ‑ facilities such as fabrication and reprocessing plants in which nuclear material exists in bulk form. The Tokyo Regional Office acts as a staging area for those inspectors who reside in Japan. It also carries out many of the administrative functions relevant to the Asian theater of operations.
To carry out their verification activities, the operations divisions must schedule, plan, and make the inspections, evaluate the results, carry out follow-up activities, if needed, and then report their findings. In addition to these principal tasks, the operations personnel negotiate with individual governments or regional multinational organizations the legal documents which provide the specific bases for implementing safeguards in each country and each facility. In a typical year, over 2,500 inspections may be carried out, covering 900 facilities worldwide.
2.5.3.2 Support Divisions
The three support divisions assist the operations divisions to fulfill their inspection responsibilities. In addition, the support divisions help to ensure that the work of the Department of Safeguards is effective and efficient.
The largest support division, the Division of Safeguards Information Technology (SGIT), is responsible for the processing, storage, retrieval, and analyses of the safeguards information reported by the member states or collected by inspectors. The SGIT staff develops, maintains, and operates the IAEA Safeguards Information System (ISIS), prepares data as requested for safeguards planning and evaluation, and provides a variety of information services to the staff of the Department of Safeguards. The division is currently involved in accessing, processing, analyzing and reporting on open source information relevant to the department’s safeguards function. Open sources include technical documents, media, acquisitions, and satellite surveillance photos.
SGIT includes the Section for Software and Hardware Services (ISH), the Section for Information Support Services (IIS), and the Section for System Infrastructure Support (ISI). ISH is responsible for the continuing development of software to support all of the safeguards divisions’ staff. The section also provides hardware and software to upgrade the IAEA Safeguards Information System. IIS provides services for computer processing of a large variety of safeguards information, including material-accounting data reported by the member states, inspection data from the field, and facility design data. Recently, this section expanded into more sophisticated information “mining” techniques using large information databases. Finally, ISI staff are concerned with the reliability, security, accessibility, and maintenance of the computerized safeguards database.
The Division of Technical Services (SGTS) has responsibility for developing, testing, procuring, shipping, maintaining and managing the equipment required by the Divisions of Operations. In addition, it provides oversight for development and documentation of equipment and material measurement procedures, and of instrumentation methods and techniques. It also acts as a liaison with the Safeguards Analytical Laboratory (SAL) located at Seibersdorf. Finally, it is responsible for technical training.
The Director of SGTS is additionally responsible for the administrative coordination of the activities of the national support programs through the Support Program Administration (SPA) office. The primary contact of POTAS with the Department of Safeguards is through the Director of SGTS via the SPA office.
SGTS includes the Section for NDA Systems and Seals (TNS), the Section for Installed Systems (TIE), the Section for Common Technical Support (TCS), and the Section for Safeguards Training (TTR). The responsibility of TNS, as the name implies, is for specifying, developing, testing, evaluating and supporting NDA equipment and sealing devices. The development part of this responsibility is, in fact, largely provided by the national support programs and monitored by members of TNS. TIE is responsible for "providing inspectors with the instruments and equipment they need where they need it, when they need it, and properly maintained, calibrated, etc."
TIE also acts as the liaison with the Safeguards Analytical Laboratory (SAL). TCS is responsible for procurement, inventory control, and management of safeguards equipment and supplies. It also coordinates sample analyses with SAL and the Network of Analytical Laboratories (NWAL). TTR coordinates all training for the staff of the Department of Safeguards, as well as for personnel of Member States, as required.
The Division of Concepts and Planning (SGCP) is responsible for strategic planning and for the development and standardization of safeguards concepts, approaches, procedures, and practices. It supports the overall activities of the Department of Safeguards in analyzing and evaluating data leading to material balance evaluations. It also supports the quality assurance work of the Department of Safeguards.
SGCP is comprised of the Section for Standardization (PST), the Section for System Studies (PSS), and the Section for Statistical Analysis (PSA). PST is responsible for standardizing safeguards procedures and policies, and maintaining the Safeguards Manual. It plays an important role in negotiating the Subsidiary Arrangements and the Facility Attachments. PSS develops the principles for the design of safeguards approaches and prepares the strategic plan for the Department of Safeguards. PSA provides general statistical support to the Department of Safeguards.
An entity that contributes importantly to safeguards activities but is not a part of the Department of Safeguards is the Safeguards Analytical Laboratory, organizationally in the Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications and physically located in the outlying town of Seibersdorf. This laboratory analyzes the chemical and isotopic content of many samples of nuclear material taken during inspections.
2.6 Safeguards Implementation
2.6.1 Basic Authority and Restraints
Article III A.5 of its Statute authorizes the Agency "...to establish and administer safeguards designed to ensure that special fissionable and other materials, services, equipment, facilities, and information made available by the Agency or at its request or under its supervision or control are not used in such a way as to further any military purpose; and to apply safeguards at the request of the parties to any bilateral or multilateral arrangement, or at the request of a State, to any of that State's activities in the field of atomic energy."
Under agreements that States conclude with the IAEA, Agency inspectors regularly visit nuclear facilities to verify records that State authorities keep on the whereabouts of nuclear material under their control, check IAEA-installed instruments and surveillance equipment, and confirm physical inventories of nuclear materials. They then prepare detailed reports for the State concerned and for the IAEA. Taken together, these and other safeguards measures provide independent, international verification that governments are not diverting material from their peaceful nuclear programs.
The system consists of three major components:
· Accountancy, i.e., reporting by States on the whereabouts of the fissionable material under their control,
on stocks of fuel and of spent fuel, and on the processing and reprocessing of nuclear materials;· Containment and surveillance techniques, such as inspection of seals which verify that no material has
disappeared, video-recording equipment which records any action in a particular area of a nuclear
installation; and· Inspection by Agency inspectors, checking instruments and seals installed, verifying books, and
confirming physical inventories.
A basic feature of safeguards is that verification can take place only on the basis of an agreement with the State in which the inspection occurs. The IAEA is not a supra-national organization with powers to impose its inspection on any State. Acceptance of safeguards is voluntary. It also is important to note that the Statute addresses only the matter of governments complying with undertakings or obligations set forth in formal agreements with the Agency. It does not give the Agency any responsibility or authority to address non‑national (e.g., terrorist) diversions of nuclear material or physical protection against threats of such diversions (except for material in the Agency's possession).
Legal agreements are the basis of IAEA safeguards. Many are popularly known as full-scope agreements because they extend to all peaceful nuclear activities and materials in the State. As explained in Chapter 1 these agreements mainly relate to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America (the Treaty of Tlatelolco), and to the South Pacific Nuclear-Free Zone Treaty (the Rarotonga Treaty). Other safeguards agreements cover individual nuclear installations or individual quantities of nuclear material. Currently, there are over 220 safeguards agreements in force in more than 135 States. The greater part of the safeguards activities is in those States where safeguards were being applied pursuant to full-scope safeguards agreements (INFCIRC/153 type)2. Safeguards are also being applied to facilities, equipment, and non-nuclear material under agreements covering individual facilities (INFCIRC/66 Rev.2 type). Appendix A has a more detailed description of the safeguards agreements.
After the Gulf War and the discovery of clandestine activities in pursuit of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, it was clear that the “verification of non-diversion of nuclear materials from peaceful nuclear programs” of a State was not sufficient to ease concerns about proliferation. Measures for strengthening safeguards that were approved by the Board of Governors in 1992 included special inspections, early provision of design information, and specified equipment (GOV/2646). In 1993 an effort was begun at the Agency to determine how more stringent measures could be added to the “traditional safeguards.” This effort was named “Program 93+2 and eventually resulted in the writing of the “Additional Protocols,” embodied in INFCIRC/540.3 These are additional agreements that individual States can accede to which allow for generally more intrusive inspections and other measures to try to uncover undeclared nuclear activities. The blending of traditional safeguards with the newer initiatives, which include unattended radiation monitoring, remote monitoring, environmental surveillance, space imaging, and information mining, is referred to as “integrated safeguards.”
2.6.2 Safeguards Implementation Report
One of the steps taken by the United States in the wake of the nuclear explosion carried out by India in mid‑1974 was to seek information from the Agency about the results of its safeguarding, in each recipient country, of U.S.‑supplied materials and equipment pursuant to the trilateral (safeguards transfer) agreement between the United States and the recipient government. The procedural difficulty foreseen by the Secretariat in providing such information directly to the United States led to a proposal by the latter that the Board of Governors request the Director General to regularly provide the Board with information on the results of all of the Agency's safeguards work. Accordingly, the Safeguards Implementation Report (SIR) has been issued annually since 1977. While not identifying any State by name, the SIR contains a wealth of statistical data, organized primarily by types of facilities. The report is not published and is held closely by the governments represented on the Board; the summary is included in the Agency's Annual Report.
2.6.3 Standing Advisory Group on Safeguards Implementation (SAGSI)
In 1975, the Director General established a Standing Advisory Group on Safeguards Implementation (SAGSI) to assure the effective and non-discriminatory interpretation and application of safeguards. The Group originally consisted of 10 individuals, but the membership has now expanded to 17; the members usually serve for 3 years. Technically, members serve as individuals rather than as representatives of their governments. They usually are members of the safeguards establishment, official or unofficial, in their home countries and their views carry weight accordingly. It would be unrealistic to expect that governments would nominate candidates likely to oppose important official policy. The Deputy Director for Safeguards sits with the chairman during formal sessions of the Group; other members of the Secretariat attend by invitation, to provide information or advice.
The agenda of the
Group, which meets regularly twice a year, is determined by technical questions
posed by the Secretariat via the Director General. The questions are often
aimed at new kinds of facilities; others pose questions of general
application. One of the first tasks undertaken by SAGSI was to provide
technical guidance for interpreting terms found in INFCIRC/153, such as "timely
detection", "significant quantity", and "risk of early detection". The
quantitative expression of those terms became known as "detection goals".
SAGSI also has addressed such questions as the application of safeguards to
mixed‑oxide fuel fabrication and on‑load fueled reactors. Guidelines for
inspections pursuant to agreements under INFCIRC/153 were provided in 1988;
those for agreements under INFCIRC/66/Rev.2 were completed in 1989. More
recently, SAGSI considered the
possible application of
unannounced random inspections so as to reduce the inspection workload while
maintaining its effectiveness. In 1999 a meeting was convened to consider
technical issues related to the proliferation potential of neptunium and
americium. In these and other instances SAGSI serves as a body that translates
legal devices into a working technical framework.
INFCIRC/66/Rev. 2: The Agency's Safeguards System (1965, As Provisionally Extended in 1966 and 1968), IAEA, Vienna, Sept. 16, 1968.
INFCIRC/153 (Corrected): The Structure and Content of Agreements Between the Agency and States Required in Connection with the Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, IAEA, Vienna, 1972.
INFCIRC/540: Model Protocol Additional to the Agreements Between States and the IAEA for the Application of Safeguards, IAEA, Vienna, September 1997.
D. Fischer and P. Szasz, Safeguarding the Atom: A Critical Appraisal, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Taylor and Francis (Publishers), London and Philadelphia, 1985 (cloth).
The best general introduction to the IAEA. Both authors are former high officials of the Agency. Highly readable.
L. Scheinman, The International Atomic Energy Agency and World Nuclear Order, Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C. 1987 (paperback).
A scholarly history and critique of the IAEA, written from the point of view of an expert in international nuclear affairs who teaches at Cornell University and has served in ERDA and the Department of State.
A Short History of Non‑Proliferation, IAEA, Vienna, 1976.
A short (50‑page) history and background of the Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, with a discussion and interpretation of its main provisions.
International Safeguards and the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, IAEA, Vienna, 1985.
Another brief pamphlet (30 pages), written by a former Director of the Legal Division of the IAEA and based on a paper presented at an international law conference; in addition to the usual subjects it discusses related non‑proliferation topics such as the Guidelines for Nuclear Transfers, the International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation, and the proposals for international storage of plutonium.
P. Kelly, Safeguards In Europe, IAEA, Vienna, 1985.
A lively and
interesting account of the origin and application of IAEA safeguards in Europe,
written by a one‑time U.K. member of the Agency's Board of Governors. Only 48
pages long, it is especially strong on the interplay of Euratom and IAEA
safeguards, and describes an inspection of a Bulgarian power reactor which the
author observed.
3.
POTAS
3.1 History
The Program of Technical Assistance to IAEA Safeguards (POTAS) originated during a 1975 visit to the IAEA by a U.S. Senate sub-committee chaired by Senator John Glenn of Ohio. On the basis of their discussions with Agency officials, it was concluded that U.S. interests and the cause of non‑proliferation would be advanced by making specific American technical expertise available to the Agency to further its efforts in international safeguards. Accordingly, a bill was passed by Congress authorizing the expenditure of $5 million over a 5‑year period to fund research and development on behalf of IAEA safeguards.
In the Fall of 1976, eighteen representatives of various U.S. government laboratories and agencies met with the IAEA Secretariat to discuss the kinds of support it would find most useful. As a result of that meeting, a program was drawn up with 50 tasks, covering the entire spectrum of Agency safeguards activities. A Technical Support Coordinating Committee (TSCC) was set up by the United States to manage its entire program, and the International Safeguards Project Office was established at Brookhaven National Laboratory to provide day‑to‑day technical management.
The program began formally on January 1, 1977, and the first plan, issued that year, incorporated the 50 tasks identified by the inter-laboratory group that had visited the Agency in 1976. Also in 1977, a supplemental appropriation of $350 thousand for that first year alone was passed by Congress, in recognition that the earlier appropriation was inadequate. Since then, annual POTAS funding has risen to the present $11.2 million, and nearly 1000 tasks and subtasks have been implemented. The POTAS expenditures on behalf of IAEA safeguards since its inception, not including “extra-budgetary” contributions for safeguards equipment, now exceed $190 million.
In 1994, the U.S. Government decided to consolidate all support to the IAEA Department of Safeguards under the “U.S. Support Program” (USSP). This program includes activities funded by POTAS as well as other sources.
3.2 Management of the Program
For the first seventeen years of its existence, POTAS was guided by the Technical Support Coordinating Committee, composed of several governmental agencies. In 1994, a new oversight group, the Subgroup on Safeguards Technical Support (SSTS), was set up to provide this guidance, replacing the TSCC. The Subgroup consists of representatives of four federal agencies: the Department of Energy, the Department of State, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and the Department of Defense. It is currently chaired by the representative from the Department of Energy. The SSTS coordinates all support to the IAEA Department of Safeguards, regardless of funding sources.
The SSTS operates as a subgroup of a subcommittee which is comprised of representatives of the same four agencies. This group, the Subcommittee on International Safeguards and Monitoring (SISM), is one of four subcommittees whose functions, among others, are to develop and coordinate U.S. policy in various areas of IAEA activity. All four of the subcommittees report to the IAEA Steering Committee, which has representation not only from the aforementioned agencies, but also from the National Security Council, the Intelligence Community, and the Office of Management and Budget. This high-level committee is responsible for formulating, overseeing, and implementing U.S. policy toward the IAEA.
The main functions of the SSTS with respect to POTAS are to provide guidance on policy and overall program direction, and to approve funding for each task that POTAS has agreed to accept. The SSTS also coordinates safeguards technical assistance to the IAEA from POTAS with other U.S. Government funded programs, the most prominent of which is DOE's International Safeguards Program.
Through the participation of the DOE, POTAS can make full use of the technical expertise and research ongoing at all the DOE National Laboratories where the safeguards programs at these laboratories reflect different areas of specialization. In addition, contractors in the U.S. private sector who have extensive experience in the nuclear safeguards field are employed in those tasks for which they are qualified.
The day-to-day technical management of POTAS is provided by ISPO, based at BNL. The ISPO staff consists of five professionals who manage and monitor a large technical program and two administrative aides. One of the professional ISPO staff members, the Liaison Officer, is based in Vienna and acts as a link between the IAEA’s Department of Safeguards and ISPO.
The technical-management role performed by ISPO is designed to ensure that requests for technical assistance to POTAS by the IAEA’s Department of Safeguards are competently evaluated for technical feasibility, and that sound recommendations to meet the request are made to the SSTS for review and possible approval. After the SSTS has decided to fund a request, ISPO supplies the technical oversight to ensure that the ensuant product meets the IAEA's stated needs. If cost-free experts are requested by the IAEA and approved by the SSTS, ISPO recruits qualified candidates. Finally, ISPO acts as the conduit of technical information between the IAEA’s Department of Safeguards and POTAS. The ISPO website can be found at www.bnl.gov/ispo.
Figure 3-1 depicts the relationships between POTAS and the various participating international and national agencies, the national and other laboratories, contractors, and consultants. The Mission referred to in the figure is the U.S. Mission to the United Nations Organizations in Vienna (UNVIE).
Fig. 3-1
Organizational and
Functional Relationships
of Various Elements Involved in POTAS
3.3 Funding
Annual funding for the
POTAS program has been relativly constant in recent years, currently exceeding
$10 million. This funding is provided through the Foreign Assistance Act and
the State Department's apportioning of the monies authorized by this Act.
In addition to the direct funding that it receives, the USSP is also the indirect beneficiary of R&D programs funded under the U.S. Department of Energy "base programs", particularly in international safeguards but also in domestic safeguards and security. Under these programs, the definition and development of new concepts is ongoing, including safeguards strategies and advanced technologies potentially applicable to IAEA safeguards. If appropriate, the USSP can take advantage of this DOE work by supporting the specific development of a concept into a product that meets the stated needs of the Department of Safeguards. Thus, the USSP can and does play a role in transferring technology from DOE laboratories to the IAEA.
In addition, the
POTAS program facilitates the transfer of funds to the IAEA for the purchase of
safeguards equipment, under the name U.S. Voluntary Contribution. This funding
fluctuates, reaching $8.3 million in 2001, and decreasing to $6.6 million in
2002.
3.4 Task Selection and Implementation
New USSP tasks are developed in response to needs identified by the IAEA. The Agency’s needs are identified in several ways; for example, as a by-product of the formulation of the Department of Safeguards R&D plan, as a requirement to safeguard a particular facility or type of facility, or as a necessary enhancement of the safeguards infrastructure. These needs are documented on a special form, the "SP-1" form, which is signed by responsible Department of Safeguards officials at the Division Director’s level, as well as by the end user with the specified need.
Once the IAEA need has been described on a SP-1 form, the USSP and/or other support programs are asked to make proposals as to how the stated need might be met. ISPO personnel then study the proposals and prepare backup written material for consideration by the SSTS. This material addresses such issues as the importance of the task in relation to the Agency's safeguards goals, its relationship to other tasks, the appropriateness of funding by the United States, the technical merits of the proposed task, the likelihood of successful development, the probable development time and funding level required, the appropriate developer, and the probable time for implementation of the product by the Agency. The discussion concludes with a recommendation for or against approval of the task. This process often reflects earlier discussions by ISPO with the IAEA and the prospective laboratory or contractor.
The SSTS meets periodically with ISPO, goes through each request, considers the arguments for and against it, and finally votes on whether to approve the task (ISPO does not participate in the voting). Tasks that are not approved may be deferred; in some cases, further clarification may be sought from the Agency, and in others, the task may be put off until a more propitious time. Decisions about a contractor, usually a national laboratory or a firm in the private sector, are typically made when the tasks are approved.
Once a contractor is selected, they are requested to prepare jointly with the IAEA project officer a "system requirements" document and a "work plan". The purpose of the former is to state clearly the scope and design requirements of the task, such that the final product will meet the needs stated in the SP-1. The purpose of the work plan is to describe how the contractor plans to perform the work called for in the task statement, and what the deliverables will be. This plan is also drawn up in collaboration with the IAEA project officer. It also may specify the format, content, and schedule for submission of reports on various phases of the task.
In addition to product development and analytical tasks, some tasks request the assignment of a "cost‑free" expert or consultant to the IAEA. Cost‑free experts (see Section 3.7) are people with specific expertise who work for the Agency for an initial full-time two-year assignment. Although they are paid by the Agency, their salaries and other expenses are reimbursed by the U.S. Government through POTAS. Consultants are used for specific tasks requiring specialized skills but whose continuous presence at the IAEA is not required. Typically, a consultant will visit the Agency several times but perform the bulk of the work for the task in the United States.
The development of tasks is, therefore, a cooperative and interactive process involving the IAEA, the U.S. Government (through the SSTS), ISPO, and the contractor, cost‑free expert, or consultant. Once a task is underway, ISPO monitors it through contacts with both the IAEA and those responsible for its implementation.
ISPO publishes information on the status of active tasks (usually there are about 100 active tasks at any one time) in summary form every three months in the "Capsule Summary of Active Tasks." Periodically ISPO publishes the “Digest of Completed Tasks” which presents a brief description of the accomplishments of the tasks that have been completed. There are presently over 800 tasks in this category.
3.5 Program Coordination and Review
Twice each year, the SSTS and ISPO meet with the IAEA to review the operation of the program.
At the Spring meeting, which takes place in Vienna, general issues and trends affecting IAEA safeguards are discussed, led by the IAEA officials. These discussions may contain the seeds of future tasks. New Agency initiatives in safeguards technology or concepts may be presented, such as the concept of what is currently referred to as “integrated safeguards,“ or the feasibility of using randomized inspections to decrease inspection requirements. The U.S. delegation can take advantage of being at Agency Headquarters by meeting with individual IAEA staff to resolve questions about new tasks and problems with current ones.
The meeting in the Fall, which takes place in the United States, is more focused. Progress on current tasks is discussed and anticipated new tasks are reviewed. Agency officials review prospective changes or problems facing the IAEA which may affect, or be affected by, the USSP. At both the Spring and the Fall meetings, contractors, cost-free experts and consultants may be invited to participate.
Several other meetings take place throughout the year to discuss coordination, planning, and management. Once or twice a year (e.g., at the annual meeting of the Institute of Nuclear Materials Management) ISPO and the SSTS meet with the laboratory coordinators for POTAS work to discuss activities, problems, and new developments. The SSTS and ISPO also meet with representatives of other national support programs every two years at a meeting of all support programs that is held at the IAEA, called the Member State Support Program Coordinators Meeting. In addition, meetings are scheduled, as needed, with support programs working cooperatively with POTAS on specific tasks. These meetings are a valuable way to exchange information between the various support programs, as well as to plan future cooperative activities.
3.6 Types of Assistance
POTAS provides technical support in many areas; however, during the quarter century that the program has existed, certain trends in the kinds of assistance have emerged.
Development and provision of equipment for safeguards use has received substantial POTAS support. Under POTAS, specialized equipment for non-destructive assay of nuclear materials in facilities throughout the nuclear-fuel cycle has been developed, tested, and provided to the IAEA. Containment and surveillance systems, such as tamper-resistant authenticated video systems for unattended use between inspections, and advanced sealing systems, also have been delivered. Techniques and equipment for destructive assay of nuclear samples also have received support.
Concurrent with developing and providing equipment to the IAEA, POTAS has assisted in developing the tools and the infrastructure support required to use the equipment effectively and reliably. This support has included funding for preparing standard written procedures for measurements and the use of equipment, and training in their use (including field exercises), the development of improved quality-assurance systems, and the increased application of computers in the field to assist inspectors in collecting, analyzing, and reviewing inspection data. "Factory support" contracts between the Agency and commercial vendors of safeguards equipment to repair and maintain equipment have also been supported by POTAS.
The data processing and information treatment system of the Department of Safeguards is designed to store the information submitted to the IAEA by the Member States in fulfillment of their safeguards obligations. With the advent of personal computers and the increased need for inspectors to collect large amounts of field data, POTAS provided substantial assistance, including expert consultants, hardware and software, and staff training, to help the Department of Safeguards shift from a centralized to a substantially decentralized mode of processing information.
Other areas of continued assistance provided by POTAS are preparation of systems studies for the development of safeguards-verification approaches and R&D planning, and certain staff support functions, such as safety, quality assurance, and management information.
A category of support that has proven to be very useful to the Department of Safeguards is the provision of cost-free experts (cost-free to the IAEA) to serve on the staff for periods of 2-5 years at IAEA headquarters in Vienna. Cost-free experts contribute in all areas of the Safeguards Support Divisions, but most heavily in data-processing, inspector training, instrument development and maintenance, and systems studies. They have specialized skills that may not be available among the permanent IAEA staff, and carry out duties that cannot be supported by the current IAEA budget.
The most common mode of support by POTAS is to supply the services of a contractor to develop a product which was identified by the IAEA as important to their safeguards mission. The work is carried out in the United States and ISPO staff monitor the progress of the work. Some examples are the development of non-destructive assay equipment by Los Alamos National Laboratory, the design of surveillance systems by Sandia National Laboratory, the production of digital surveillance systems by Aquila Technologies, and the provision of training of IAEA staff by Sonalysts, Inc.
Another form of support furnished by POTAS is through consultants. The consultant gives expert advice or assistance on a well-defined short-term problem. Some illustrations are the installation of remote monitoring devices at nuclear facilities under safeguards, the implementation of satellite communications between the sensors and Agency Headquarters, and the use of open source information to detect evidence of undeclared activities.
Finally, POTAS provides in-kind services involving access to U.S. nuclear facilities, materials and experts. A notable example of this is the training course for new inspectors on the theory and use of non-destructive assay equipment that is held periodically at Los Alamos National Laboratory.
3.7 Cost-Free Experts
Cost‑free experts (CFEs) are people with highly specialized skills who go to work for the Agency for two or more years to help implement a new project or program. They are cost‑free only to the Agency, which is reimbursed by POTAS for the cost of their services.
CFEs work under what is called a "special service agreement" or contract with the Agency. It entitles them to all the rights and privileges of IAEA staff members, including participation in the Agency's pension plan and health insurance plan. CFEs usually are assigned to specific divisions within the Department of Safeguards, although some have been assigned to directly assist the Deputy Director General for Safeguards. As a matter of policy, CFEs are not assigned to the operations divisions, except in support roles.
CFE contracts are normally for two years. At the end of that time, the Agency may ask for an extension of the contract on the grounds that the CFE is indispensable to the continuation or completion of the project or program on which he or she is working. Since CFEs are not intended to be a means of extending the regular staff, to approve the request, the SSTS must be satisfied that the Agency could not replace the CFE by a member of the regular staff, and that extending the current CFE position would serve the best interests of both the IAEA and the United States. The SSTS is reluctant to extend CFE appointments beyond four years. The reasoning behind this policy is that if the position is so important as to require repeated extension, it should be filled by regular staff.
The number of U.S.
CFEs fluctuates from year to year. In the mid-1990s there were as many as 28
U.S.-sponsored CFEs in the Department of Safeguards alone. At the time of
writing, the more usual number – about a dozen - are serving in the
department. Section
4.2.3
discusses the
duties and obligations of a CFE working in safeguards.
3.8 Present Status
At the beginning of 2002,POTAS completed its 25th year. Since its inception, it has undertaken well over 800 tasks and currently has about 100 active ones. Since several of these tasks are umbrella tasks, having many subtasks under their purview, the actual number of tasks accepted by POTAS to date is approaching 1000.
The tasks are divided into six categories, A through F, according to the IAEA function being addressed:
A: Measurement Technology
B: Training
C: System Studies
D: Information Processing and
Evaluation
E: Containment and Surveillance
F: Safeguards Evaluation and
Administrative Support
There is a seventh category of tasks, called “special” tasks, and designated as “SP.” SP tasks differ from the categorized tasks in that they are usually initiated from within the U.S. Government to deal with perceived needs related to international safeguards. Unlike the regular tasks, they do not originate in requests from the Agency and their performance does not have to be cleared with it. To date, there have been about five dozen SP tasks.
3.9
Other Member State Support Programs
POTAS has served as a model for other member state support programs (MSSPs). In addition to the United States, the following countries and one regional organization (EURATOM) have established such programs: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Netherlands, Russia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
The primary mission of the MSSPs to IAEA safeguards, including the USSP, is to provide technical assistance to the IAEA as requested by the Department of Safeguards to meet their obligations in non-proliferation verification. Together, the MSSPs provide technical assistance equivalent to about one-quarter of the regular budget of the Department of Safeguards. The success of the MSSPs in providing needed technology to the IAEA has caused them to become the de facto primary source of R&D for the Department of Safeguards.
The USSP is not only the largest single program among the MSSPs but also covers the widest range of activities. Other MSSPs tend to concentrate on problems peculiar to the fuel cycle in the sponsoring State (e.g., the Canadian program is strongly focused on safeguards for CANDU reactors, and the Japanese program on the spent fuel processing facilities that are in existence or being built). Some of the other MSSPs also supply cost-free experts to the IAEA. Again, however, the USSP has by far the largest contingent, providing nearly half of the CFEs working in the Department of Safeguards.
On occasion, MSSPs have collaborated on joint tasks or closely related ones. This approach has the value of not only increasing the total resources available to a task, but of fostering a cross-fertilization of ideas. To relieve the Agency of the considerable burden of monitoring task performance, the MSSPs have sometimes assumed increased responsibilities. An example is the preparation and review of measurement procedures, in which one MSSP undertook the preparation of the written procedures, and another MSSP supplied critical reviews and test procedures. One country may make available certain types of facilities for testing equipment or procedures when such facilities are not available in the country developing the equipment or procedures.
As described in Sec. 3.5, the SSTS and ISPO meet periodically with representatives of other MSSPs to coordinate activities and exchange ideas.
4. Working at the IAEA
4.1 Role
Article VII of the Statute of the IAEA directs that "...paramount consideration in the recruitment and employment of the staff and in the determination of the conditions of service shall be to secure employees of the highest standards of efficiency, technical competence, and integrity." The Article also stipulates some basic rules of conduct for the staff:
a. not to seek or receive instructions from any source external to the
Agency;
b. to refrain from any action
which might reflect poorly on their position as officials of the Agency; and
c. "...subject to their
responsibilities to the Agency," not to "disclose any industrial secret or
other confidential
information coming to their knowledge by reason of their official duties for
the Agency".
The Article further reiterates the obligation of each government adopting the Statute to respect the international character of the staff and not to seek to influence them in the discharge of their duties.
The Board of Governors first adopted Staff Regulations, as called for in the Article, in 1957 on a "provisional" basis. Those Regulations were issued as INFCIRC/6 and have been amended repeatedly but remain "provisional". A copy of the Regulations is required to be transmitted to each staff member with his or her letter of appointment, and, in accepting appointment, each staff member must state that he or she accepts those terms and conditions.
In addition to the basic principles of conduct laid down in the Statute, the Regulations include the following strictures:
a. No working papers or other Secretariat documents shall be issued
except on the responsibility of the Director
General.
b. Members
of the Secretariat shall not engage in any activity incompatible with proper
performance of their duties
with the Agency and their status as international civil servants; they shall
avoid, in particular, any kind of public
pronouncement which may adversely reflect on the integrity, independence and
impartiality required and bear in
mind, at all times, the reserve and tact incumbent upon that status.
Utmost discretion is to be exercised in all matters of official business, no information known because of his or her official position and that has not been made public is to be communicated to any person or government, except in the course of his or her duties or as authorized by the Director General; no such information is to be used by
c.
staff members for private advantage nor shall anything based upon such
information be published except with the
written approval of the Director General. The foregoing obligations shall
not cease upon separation from the
Secretariat.
d.
No honor, decoration, favor, gift or remuneration from any government or
any other source external to the
Agency, except for war service, may be accepted without prior approval of the
Director General, who is directed
to grant such approval only in exceptional cases and where acceptance would not
be incompatible with the status
of an international civil servant.
e. While
members of the Secretariat may exercise the right to vote, they may not engage
in any other political
activity.
The wording of the oath or declaration to which each member of the Secretariat must subscribe is set forth in the Regulations. The Declaration emphasizes loyalty to the Agency, conduct consistent with the interests only of the Agency, and the prohibition against seeking or accepting instructions from any government or other external authority.
The Director General has directed that, additionally, each new Secretariat member shall receive for information and guidance a copy of the "Report on Standards of Conduct in the International Civil Service" prepared in 1954 by the International Civil Service Advisory Board at the request of the UN's Administrative Committee on Coordination (SEC/INS/82).
That document addresses, in practical terms, how an international civil servant should conduct his or her relationship with the public, with governments (particularly his or her own) and the representative bodies in the organization, and with colleagues (peers, supervisors and subordinates) in the Secretariat. It also discusses conduct while serving away from the headquarters, as well as providing guidance on the staff member's political and other outside activities and his or her private life. One observation, in particular, quoted in the report illustrates its relevance: "It is perhaps a temptation particularly in the first stage of one's [inter-national] career to be impatient with or intolerant of the methods adopted and contribution made by persons of a different background and habits of work than your own". But, "No one who believes that the attitudes or the working methods and work habits of his own nationality or of his own region are the only ones worthy of acceptance and utilization can long be successful in international work".
4.2 Status
4.2.1 Diplomatic Immunity and Privileges
The privileges and immunities of members of the Secretariat based in Vienna are governed by the Agency's Agreement with the Republic of Austria, issued by the Agency as INFCIRC/15/ Rev.1/Add.1. Article XV of the Agreement sets forth the privileges and immunities of officials of the IAEA, including immunity from legal process (law suits) based upon any utterance or act in performing official duties, exemption from immigration restrictions and alien registration for themselves, spouses, dependent relatives, and other members of their households, exemption (of non‑Austrians) from Austrian military service, and freedom to acquire foreign securities and currency and other personal and real property, under the same conditions applicable to Austrian citizens.
In time of "international crisis", officials of the IAEA, their spouses, dependent relatives, and other members of their households are accorded the same protection and repatriation facilities as are accorded to diplomats of comparable rank accredited to Austria.
Of more immediate importance to the individual staff member, all salary and other emoluments, as well as pensions, paid by the IAEA or the Joint Staff Pension Fund of the UN, in connection with service with the Agency, is exempt from taxation by Austria, as is any income derived by a staff member from sources outside Austria.
Officials of the IAEA have the right to import the following items free of duty or other levies, prohibitions and restrictions on imports:
a.
furniture and effects in one or more separate shipments, and later
additions of the same, as necessary;
b.
one automobile every four years; and
c.
limited quantities of certain articles for personal use or consumption
and not for gifts or sale to others.
Officials having the professional grade of P‑5 and above are accorded additional privileges and immunities, corresponding to those accorded to diplomats of comparable rank accredited to Austria. As a practical matter, the additional privileges include more frequent import of automobiles (see Section 6.2.2), extended period for duty‑free import of household goods, and refund of Value Added Tax on local purchases greater than 73 Euros (up to a maximum of about 3000 Euros). The official, his or her spouse, and dependent children are also immune from personal arrest or detention, and from seizure of personal baggage.
In accordance with the Agreement, each official, spouse, dependent relative and household member will be issued an identity card, with photograph, which indicates his or her status.
It must be noted that the Agreement states that all of the foregoing privileges and immunities are conferred in the interests of the IAEA and not for the benefit of the individuals concerned. Consequently, the Agreement provides for the IAEA to waive immunity of its officials "where the immunity impedes the course of justice and where it can be waived without prejudice to the interest of the IAEA". It also provides for the IAEA and its officials to cooperate at all times with the appropriate Austrian authorities in the execution of Austrian laws and to prevent any abuses of the privileges and immunities accorded by the Agreement.
As required by the Agreement, if any official of the IAEA finds himself or herself (or a member of his or her household) in a situation where one of the specified privileges or immunities arises, that situation must be reported immediately to the Director General for consideration of a waiver.
All new staff members, including cost‑free experts, are required to attend an Induction Course given by the Agency periodically, consisting of five half‑day sessions. Spouses are welcome to attend any or all sessions. The second session explains the status and obligations of the international civil servant and attendance by spouses is particularly recommended. At that session, any questions or uncertainties concerning situations to which privileges, immunities, and exemptions are applicable should be raised and either resolved or referred to the proper office. While it is important that the extent of the privileges are understood by the official and his or her spouse and household, it is absolutely critical to their continued enjoyment of their stay in Vienna that they understand that "such privileges and immunities shall not excuse members of the Secretariat who enjoy them from performance of their private obligations or from the observance of laws and police regulations". In short, don't try to get away with anything shady or with not paying parking tickets!
When an official of the IAEA travels outside Austria on Agency business, the privileges and immunities accorded him or her depend upon the law of that particular country. For example, in the United States the provisions of the International Organizations Immunities Act (22 USC 288) are applicable. The situation in other countries varies. Almost 60 member states of the IAEA (not including the United States) accepted an Agreement on the Privileges and Immunities of the IAEA that are listed in INFCIRC/9/ Rev.2./Add 6. With that list, however, is reproduced reservations or exceptions made by almost half of those governments to various provisions. It would be prudent, therefore, when a staff member plans official travel outside Austria, to obtain authoritative information on the privileges and immunities accorded to IAEA officials within each country to be visited.
4.2.2 Position and Obligations Relative to IAEA, POTAS, and U.S.
Government
As noted in Section 4.1, all members of the Secretariat, whether hired directly
or provided as a cost‑free expert, owe their professional loyalty to the
Agency. The oath or declaration made upon entry into service with the Agency
calls upon them to serve wholeheartedly and exclusively in the Agency's mission
and interests. Accordingly, they are obliged to subordinate their personal
interests, avoid actions which result in conflict between such personal
interests and those of the Agency, and carry out their duties impartially.
Bearing in mind that the oath or declaration specifically requires that
instructions are not to be sought or accepted "in regard to the performance of
my duties from any government or other authority external to the Agency", a
U.S. member of the Secretariat must not even be seen to show partiality to the
U.S. government or any U.S. entity, least of all to their former employer. On
the other hand, they are not expected to remain silent if a situation should
arise within the Secretariat in which the U.S. government, its people, or any
of its institutions are maligned, misrepresented, or unfairly portrayed or
treated. In such event, the U.S. member can certainly insist upon fair
treatment of the U.S. government or institution.
U.S. members of the Secretariat are not required by the U.S. government to report or provide information concerning their duties or any other aspect of the Agency's activities. That should not in any way, however, discourage U.S. members from discussing their work with officers of the U.S. Mission or delegation, for example, as long as the information conveyed does not fall within the prohibition, in the Statute and Staff Regulations, applicable to any person or government; i.e., "...any information known to them by reason of their official position which has not been made public, except in the course of the performance of their duties or by authorization of the Director General."
The relationship to POTAS of a U.S. member of the Secretariat, recruited for a cost‑free expert assignment, is basically similar to the relationship to the U.S. government, except that POTAS and the Agency may have agreed upon special arrangements to serve mutual interests, such as the submission of periodic activity reports by the U.S. member to his or her supervisor in the Agency with copies to POTAS. This subject is discussed in detail later, in Section 4.2.3.
U.S. citizens who are members of the Secretariat, while owing professional loyalty to the Agency, retain the privileges and responsibilities of U.S. citizenship. They owe allegiance to the United States, remain subject to its laws generally and are entitled to protection by the U.S. Government. When traveling outside Austria other than on official Agency business (when the UN Laissez‑Passer is used) they use a U.S. passport. U.S. income tax returns must be filed and taxes paid (but see Section 4.3.10 on reimbursement by the Agency for taxes paid on Agency salary and allowances). Arrangements for voting by absentee ballot in U.S. elections should be made by the individual with the appropriate local or state authorities; if it is uncertain who these authorities are, a letter should be sent to City Hall (or the equivalent), attention of Voter Registration, at least several months in advance of the election, requesting an absentee ballot for each named member of the family of voting age. The ballot(s) should be requested to be sent via international air mail; even then, it may become difficult to return ballots by the deadline at which they must reach the U.S. address.
4.2.2.1 Access to and Treatment of IAEA Confidential Information
Article VII of the Statute requires that members of the staff "...subject to their responsibilities to the Agency . . . shall not disclose any industrial secret or other confidential information coming to their knowledge by reason of their official duties for the Agency."
The Provisional Staff Regulations extend the general prohibition against disclosure of "...any information known to them by reason of their official position which has not been made public" and makes clear that such obligation does not cease upon leaving the Secretariat.
The principal activity in which the Secretariat acquires information which member states regard as industrial secrets or as confidential is that carried out by the Department of Safeguards. The statutory prohibition is included in INFCIRC/26, INFCIRC/66/Rev.2, and INFCIRC/153; the latter two explicitly require the Agency to "...take every precaution to protect commercial and industrial secrets." Every Agency safeguards agreement in force includes that requirement, either explicitly in the case of all agreements based upon INFCIRC/153, or by reference to the relevant paragraphs of INFCIRC/66/Rev.2.
The emphasis on confidentiality of information clearly reflects a principle strongly held by member states from the creation of the Agency to the present day. It represents, perhaps, the limit to which States are prepared to surrender some portion of their sovereignty in the interest of safeguards. That attitude, however, runs up against the desire for greater transparency in implementing Agency safeguards in the interest of greater credibility. The annual Safeguards Implementation Report apparently represents the present limits in that direction. Even though it is not made public and does not name States or facilities, its contents have been criticized by some member states as being too revealing.
It can be assumed that documents marked "Confidential" will remain a feature of life in the Department of Safeguards. New members of the department staff are instructed about the definition of information to be treated as "Confidential" and the preparation, marking, storing, and handling of such information. It is important that those procedures are followed diligently; failure to do so could not only lead to termination of employment but, more significantly, to loss of confidence by member states in the safeguards system.
4.2.2.2 Security Issues
New staff members from the United States may have been engaged in work, before their Agency appointment, for which a security clearance was issued. Depending upon the level of such clearance and the classified information to which the individual had access, some discretion may be advisable in personal travel to certain geographical areas, within some period after leaving their previous employment. Therefore, it would be prudent for people who have recently held a security clearance to discuss this matter with the security office of the prior U.S. employer, before departing from the United States. U.S. staff members preparing to travel on official or personal business to countries having a history of terrorism directed against U.S. citizens may also wish to consult with officers of the U.S. Embassy or Mission on the current situation in those countries and any possible precautions to be taken.
A word of caution on currency exchanges is also in order. Some countries set artificially high exchange-rates on their currency. In such countries, it is often tempting to try to get more favorable rates from private persons. U.S. staff are strongly cautioned against this practice. It is highly illegal and may result in arrest on charges of black‑market currency dealings. If that happens, there is little that the U.S. Embassy or Consulate in that country can do to help.
4.2.3 Status of CFEs Relative to IAEA Staff
In general, CFEs have the same obligations, duties, and privileges as the regular staff, with one major exception: they may not be designated as inspectors. Otherwise, they are subject to the same rules and regulations as the rest of the staff. Among other things, they must maintain the confidentiality of safeguards information to which they become privy during their work. They are also subject to the managerial authority of their supervisors ‑ i.e., in the performance of their duties they do not "take orders" from anyone outside the IAEA, whether ISPO, the SSTS, or any agency of the U.S. Government.
Nevertheless, the U.S. Government has a legitimate interest in CFEs performing the specific tasks for which they were sent to the IAEA, i.e., those described in the task statement approved by the SSTS. To help accomplish this goal, each CFE adheres to a work plan, which is agreed upon soon after he/she arrives, and his/her progress is monitored by the use of quarterly reports (and summed up in the final report).
4.2.3.1 The Work Plan
When the original request for a cost-free expert is submitted by the Agency to POTAS, the request package consists of the SP-1, which describes the Agency's need for the expert, Annex I to the SP-1, which describes the qualifications sought for the cost-free expert, and a preliminary work plan. The latter describes in more detail than the SP-1 or Annex I what activities the cost-free expert will be expected to perform during the initial year of appointment. This statement of activities provides direction to ISPO in selecting the CFE, becomes part of ISPO’s recommendation to the SSTS during the approval process, and forms the basis of the more detailed work plan which is prepared by the CFE as soon as possible after arrival in Vienna.
This detailed work plan is prepared by the CFE in cooperation with the supervisor. It describes how the assigned task is to be done, with a schedule of milestones (if appropriate) for accomplishing the various activities and parts or stages of the task. This work plan requires the approval of the supervisor, who forwards a copy to ISPO. The CFE should not bypass the supervisor by submitting it directly to ISPO.
The work plan, together with the task statement, form the overall working agreement between the Agency and POTAS as to the work the CFE will carry out. If the Agency wishes later to change the Agreement significantly, then a new task statement must be written and submitted to the SSTS for approval. Much more likely is that the Agency may wish to add related activities, or to alter the emphasis of existing ones. In that case, only the work plan needs to be changed when agreement is reached.
4.2.3.2 Quarterly Progress Reports
Four times a year, before January 1, April 1, July 1, and October 1, the CFE should prepare a progress report summarizing activities in the preceding quarter. This report should be submitted two weeks before these dates to the CFE's supervisor, who will forward a copy to Support Programs Administration, which will, in turn, forward it to ISPO. The progress reports should convey the progress made on the assigned task. Typically, they range from a paragraph to two or three, and should describe the specific activities the CFE performed in fulfillment of the approved work plan.
4.2.3.3 Duties Outside Work Plan
Inevitably, the CFE will be called on to assist in certain sectional or divisional activities outside the scope of the assigned task. There is no objection to this as long as the amount of time spent on such activities does not detract significantly from the main task. As a rough guideline, 10‑20% of the CFE's time is acceptable. In case of doubt, the CFE should relay the concern to the ISPO Liaison Officer in Vienna, who, if necessary, will take the matter up with IAEA management.
4.2.3.4 The Final Report
At the conclusion of the assignment to the IAEA, the CFE is expected to prepare a final report summarizing the progress made towards achieving the goals of the assigned task. This will be more detailed than the quarterly progress reports, and should address each of the activities described in the task statement. As for all other reports prepared by the CFE for outside distribution, this should be submitted to the CFE's supervisor, who will then transmit a copy to ISPO.
4.2.4 Status of Interns
A recent innovation by the USSP has been the introduction of interns to the work force of the Secretariat. Interns are usually recent graduates with interests in international affairs, nonproliferation policy, and/or computer science and engineering evident in their academic background. The Agency has not yet defined official personnel policies regarding the interns’ status but has left this up to the section heads to whom they report. Interns typically have contracts to work at the Agency for one year, although shorter and longer periods are possible. The annual leave (i.e., vacation) policy adopted by one section in SGIT allows for a total of 20 days, with up to 15 days available in one block. The policy also allows for seven days of uncertified sick leave. These allowances may serve as guidelines for interns, but are currently at the discretion of the section head.
In the Fall, ISPO recruits for intern assignments that will begin in June. For information, consult the ISPO web site: www.bnl.gov/ispo.
4.3
Working Conditions and Remunerations
Working conditions at the Agency are much like the working conditions of any large governmental organization in the United States. They are described in detail by the Provisional Staff Regulations and Staff Rules, of which every new appointee receives a copy. Here some of the highlights are discussed, so that the appointee will know what to expect.
The normal workweek consists of five days, Monday through Friday. Normal working hours are 8:30 a.m. ‑ 5:30 p.m. (8:30 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. in the summer), with an hour break for lunch. The Agency adopted a system of flexible time, which allows employees to substitute other hours for some of the normal working hours, provided they are present during the "core" hours of 9:30 a.m. to 4 p.m. (9:30 a.m. - 3:30 p.m. in the summer) and if their work schedule permits.
The professional staff is not paid overtime, but within certain constraints, may be compensated for extra time worked by extra time off. Staff is expected to work during the core hours plus additional hours to total nine hours (eight-and-a-half in summer) including one hour for lunch. The hours are recorded by swiping in on a time clock. If the staff member arrives later or leaves earlier than the core hours, the supervisor must initial the time card. However, if the staff member works longer (or shorter) than the nine required hours but within the hours of 7:30 a.m. – 7:00 p.m., then the additional (or deficit) time is recorded. The additional time is accumulated to give the staff member up to 4 days of compensatory time off each half-year. Deficit time is used against annual leave at the rate of 8 hours equals one vacation day. However, the staff member is restricted to using 12 hours each month as a maximum.
Staff members who are inspectors receive additional compensatory time when they have spent sixty days outside their duty station on travel on official business. They are entitled to one day of compensatory time off for each official Agency holiday spent on business travel, and one day for each weekend day working or traveling outside the duty station according to the travel guidelines laid down by the Agency.
Section 4.3.8. discusses annual leave, home leave, sick leave, and holidays.
4.3.1 Salaries, Allowances, and Grants
4.3.1.1 Salaries
This Guidebook addresses the remuneration only for the professional categories (P1 through P5). The required qualifications for the five grades are as shown below.
P‑1. A first degree (e.g., Bachelor of Arts or Science) from a university
or the equivalent, such as a specialized
technical or educational institute.
P‑2. A first university degree plus a minimum of 2 years of working experience in a relevant field.
P‑3. A first university degree plus 6 years of working experience in a relevant field.
P‑4. A first university degree plus 10 years of working experience in a relevant field.
P‑5. A first university degree plus 15 years of working experience in a relevant field.
A higher university degree (e.g., a Master's or a Ph.D.) in a relevant field may substitute for two years of working experience. In certain circumstances, the Director General may establish different working‑experience guidelines.
CFEs are usually recruited at the P‑3 and P‑4 levels; inspectors are usually recruited at the P-3 level. The P‑5 level is generally reserved for section heads and senior professionals.
Salaries are determined not only by the grade of the employee but by the step within a grade. Assuming satisfactory performance, employees automatically advance one step each year. In addition, there is a difference in remuneration between employees with or without a dependant spouse or child.
Table 4-1 shows the salary scales for the professional grades P-3 through P-5. These annual salaries, given in U.S. dollars, were in effect May 2002; it must be emphasized that the actual amount may vary from month to month due to various factors that enter into its determination, such as the exchange rate. However, as a practical matter, these variations tend to be relatively minor. The three columns on the left show the pay for employees with no dependant spouse or child; the three on the right give the amounts for employees with a dependent spouse or child.
Table 4-1 Annual Salary Schedule (May 2002) | ||||||
|
|
No Dependents |
Dependents | ||||
Step |
P-3 |
P-4 |
P-5 |
P-3 |
P-4 |
P-5 |
1 |
53,500 | 63,563 | 75,077 | 57,315 | 68,257 | 80,815 |
2 |
54,780 |
64,928 | 76,471 | 58,707 | 69,742 | 82,334 |
3 |
56,063 |
66,285 | 77,806 | 60,101 | 71,222 | 83,855 |
4 |
57,342 |
67,642 | 79,140 | 61,491 | 72,703 | 85,374 |
5 |
58,624 |
69,002 | 80,475 | 62,885 | 74,185 | 86,893 |
6 |
59,903 |
70,358 | 81,808 | 64,275 | 75,667 | 88,412 |
7 |
61,182 | 71,718 | 83,142 | 65,666 | 77,149 | 89,932 |
8 |
62,463 | 73,076 | 84,476 | 67,060 | 78,630 | 91,451 |
9 |
63,742 | 74,434 | 85,810 | 68,453 | 80,114 | 92,970 |
10 |
65,023 | 75,791 | 87,144 | 69,844 | 81,594 | 94,491 |
11 |
66,298 | 77,120 | 88,477 | 71,237 | 83,075 | 96,012 |
12 |
67,575 | 78,425 | 89,810 | 72,627 | 84,599 | 97,529 |
13 |
68,850 | 79,724 | 91,118 | 74,020 | 86,040 | 99,048 |
14 |
70,125 | 81,026 | ------------ |
75,412 | 87,521 | ------------ |
15 |
71,402 | 82,327 | ------------ |
76,804 | 89,004 | ------------ |
Salaries may be paid
entirely in Euros or, if the employee prefers, up to 70% in dollars and the rest
in Euros.
4.3.1.2 Allowances, Grants, and Subsidies
Dependency Allowances
In addition to the salaries shown in Table 4-1, employees are entitled to certain dependency allowances. A married staff member receives $1936 annually for each dependent child, and a single staff member receives that amount for each dependent child beyond the first. This allowance is doubled for any disabled child. There is also an allowance of $693 for each dependent parent and/or sibling if the staff member has no dependent spouse.
For defining eligibility as a “dependent child” in the above context, the Agency rule is as follows: below 18 years of age if not attending college, and below 22 years of age if in full time attendance.
Education Grants
The IAEA provides grants for the children of non-locally recruited Professional and General Service Staff with fixed-term contracts. The entitlement pertains to primary and secondary school attendance and continues through the fourth year of post-secondary studies,* but ends during the scholastic year in which the child reaches age 25. The entitlement does not apply to post-graduate educational institutions, nor to correspondence schools or vocational schools.
The grant can be applied towards any admissible costs of attendance including tuition, enrollment, registration, prescribed textbooks, exam fees, and diplomas. For children attending primary and secondary schools in Vienna, the cost of lunches, group transportation and, in some cases, tuition in the mother tongue, can be claimed. For children in school away from Vienna, their expenses for room and board may be claimed by the staff member.
The claimed educational expenses are subject to a limit, known as the “admissible educational expense”, which is, in turn, reimbursable at 75% (100% for disabled children). For dependents studying in Vienna this limit is 12,159 Euros whereas for those studying in the United States the maximum admissible educational expense is $23,445. There are other limits tabulated by the Agency for study in other countries. See Section 6.5 for a discussion of the costs of primary and secondary schools in Vienna.
Additionally, children of staff members who are eligible for education grant benefits are allowed one round trip travel per scholastic year between the place of study and Vienna. A special student-fare air ticket is provided (or a lump sum based on 65% of the lowest full economy fare). More details on all aspects of the educational grants are available from the Agency’s Division of Personnel.
* If the first degree is obtained earlier, the entitlement ends then.
Assignment Grant
To help with the additional expense of the initial settling‑in period (hotel accommodations, cost of meals) the Agency gives an assignment grant to new arrivals. The amount of the grant is the equivalent of the per diem for Vienna, plus 50% of the per diem for each dependant. Further, the assignment grant is applicable for 30 days, regardless of the actual expenses the staff member incurs - even if permanent housing is immediately available, for instance.
The per diem for Vienna in June 2002 was 180 Euro, so a staff member arriving with a spouse and one dependent child would be entitled to an assignment grant of $10,800 Euros, a nice way to begin employment at the Agency. However, payments by the Agency are not immediate so the new staff member is well advised to have ample reserves available when he or she arrives in Vienna; $5,000 to $10,000 should be considered as a minimum.
Repatriation Grant
Upon termination of service, the Agency will pay a repatriation grant, equivalent to separation pay, to a staff member. The amount of the grant, expressed in weeks of separation pay, is shown in Table 4‑2 for the professional category as a function of length of service. The amount of the grant also depends on whether or not the staff member has dependents.
Rental Subsidy
Staff members who have been at the Agency for a relatively long time have generally been able to find suitable housing at lower rents than new arrivals (partly because long‑term leases are more favorable than short‑term ones, and partly because they have had more time to investigate the housing market). Recognizing that the new arrival may be at a disadvantage, the Agency provides some compensation in the form of a rental subsidy. The subsidy covers the basic rental of a house or apartment (whether furnished or unfurnished), garage (if part of the house or building), fixed maintenance costs, and VAT for grades up to and including P-4 (if your grade is P-5 or higher you may claim VAT reimbursement separately). The subsidy does not cover utilities; i.e., heating, gas, electricity or telephone costs, or any taxes other than VAT.
The subsidy operates on that part of the rent which exceeds a certain threshold amount based on the average ratio of rent to income for Vienna. For single employees, the threshold is currently 20% of salary, and it is 18% for employees with dependents.
Table 4-2. Repatriation
Grant as a Function of Years of Continuous Service
Years of Continuous Service |
Amount of Grant (weeks of pay) | |
Staff member with spouse or dependent child |
Staff member without spouse or dependent child | |
1 |
4 |
3 |
2 |
8 |
5 |
3 |
10 |
6 |
4 |
12 |
7 |
5 |
14 |
8 |
6 |
16 |
9 |
7 |
18 |
10 |
8 |
20 |
11 |
9 |
22 |
13 |
10 |
24 |
14 |
11 |
26 |
15 |
12 or more |
28 |
16 |
Table 4-3. Yearly Adjustment Factor Used to Compute Rent Subsidy
Year |
Adjustment Factor |
1 |
80% |
2 |
80% |
3 |
80% |
4 |
80% |
5 |
60% |
6 |
40% |
7 |
20% |
The subsidy is calculated as a percentage of the amount of rent in excess of this threshold; this percentage declines with the number of years that the staff member has been at the Agency and becomes zero after 7 years (see Table 4-3).
There are also two other restrictions:
(1) the Agency defines a “maximum reasonable rent”, which results in
constraints on computing the subsidy, and
(2) the Agency limits the
subsidy to a maximum of 40% of the actual rent.
Putting all of these rules into algebraic form, if
S = monthly subsidy
t = threshold factor (.18 or .20)
R = monthly rent
P = monthly salary
y = yearly adjustment factor (from Table 4-3)
M = maximum reasonable rent
then the monthly
subsidy is the smallest of the three results below:
S = y (R - tP) or
= y (M - tP)
or
= 0.4 R
4.3.2 Contract Policy
Regular staff designees receive from the Agency a letter of appointment which gives the terms of employment, either explicitly or by reference to the Agency's Provisional Staff Regulations and Rules, a copy of which is sent to the designee. The letter specifies the following: the duration of the appointment, the grade and starting salary, the amounts contributed by the Agency and the employee to the United Nations Joint Pension Fund, the conditions governing reimbursement of costs of travel to the Agency, and the requirement for submitting a satisfactory medical report to the Agency's Medical Officer as a condition for employment. It requests notification of acceptance and the expected reporting date at the Agency.
The letter of appointment also states that the appointment in no way obligates the Agency to offer a renewal, extension, or permanent appointment at the expiration of the three years, although, in practice, extensions of one or two years may be granted.
Cost‑free experts are appointed under a Special Service Agreement, which contains similar provisions. They will receive any change in compensation applicable to Agency staff in the same category, and enjoy the privileges and immunities accorded to officials of the Agency. The CFE will also be obligated by the same restrictions on the conduct of their duties (e.g., concerning disclosure of confidential information, accepting instructions from any Government including their own) as apply to international civil servants. As in the letter of appointment to staff, it is made clear that the agreement does not carry with it any expectation of a renewal or extension.
While initial appointments to the regular staff are usually for three years, cost‑free experts are usually appointed for a two- year term.
4.3.3 Advancement and Promotion Policy
As explained in Sec. 4.3.1.1, assuming satisfactory service the staff member will automatically advance one step in salary (within a grade level) each year.
Promotion to the next grade level is not automatic but is at the discretion of the Director General. Since all vacancies are advertised outside the Agency, staff members applying for such positions are in competition with outside applicants. Other things being equal, however, they have the advantage of their qualifications being personally known to their superiors at the Agency, and of directly relevant experience as a result of having worked at the Agency.
Initial contracts for regular staff are for three years. Renewal, which also is at the discretion of the Director General, will be for two years, at the end of which the employee becomes vested in the Pension Fund. That is, staff members leaving at the end of five years will receive not only their own contribution to the Pension Fund (with accumulated interest) but the Agency's as well. Staff members leaving before five years are not vested and receive only their own contributions (with interest) upon departure. Since CFEs do not, as a rule, stay on for 5 years, the USSP has recently made an option available. CFEs may elect to have an equivalent amount paid to them rather than joining the pension fund. See Section 4.3.7 for a more detailed description of this option.
Staff members that are lucky enough to be extended beyond the seventh anniversary of their assignment are considered to have a long-term contract and are considered permanent staff.
Staff are normally informed whether they are to be extended 12 to 18 months in advance of their contract’s expiration date.
The retirement age for new staff members is now 62; there are no age
restrictions for cost‑free experts.
4.3.4 Career Opportunities
In recent years and for a variety of reasons the IAEA has adopted a policy of encouraging professional staff turn‑over in all positions except those of inspectors. As a rule, then, employment is not extended beyond seven years, so that professional staff should not count on a permanent career at the IAEA.
In contrast, inspectors are more likely to enjoy long‑term careers at the Agency because of the investment, in terms of training, the Agency makes in them. After the initial probationary period, assuming satisfactory service, they usually receive a succession of five‑year appointments and may move up to supervisory status as they gain experience.
4.3.5 Distribution of Staff by Region and Gender
In recruiting and promotions the IAEA takes into account not only the professional qualifications, technical competence, and efficiency of candidates but also geographical distribution and the contributions to the Agency's budget of the member states. Although the industrialized nations, and especially those with large nuclear industries, account for a majority of the professional staff, in recent years there has been considerable pressure from developing countries to increase their representation on the staff, especially in the higher positions.
The geographic distribution of the regular professional staff of the IAEA during mid-2002 is shown in Table 4-4. One interesting statistic that the table yields is that the United States accounts for only 14% of the regular professional staff while it is assessed at one-quarter of the IAEA budget.
Table 4-4. Geographic Distribution
of IAEAs Professional Staff
| NATIONALITY | DDG | D | P-5 | P-4 | P-3 | P-2 | P-1 | TOTAL |
| Afghanistan | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 |
| Albania | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | 2 | |
| Algeria | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | 3 |
| Argentina | - | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | - | - | 8 |
| Armenia | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | - | 2 |
| Australia | - | 3 | 7 | 3 | 3 | - | - | 16 |
| Austria | - | - | 1 | 4 | 8 | 2 | - | 15 |
| Bangladesh | - | - | 1 | 1 | 2 | - | - | 4 |
| Belarus | - | - | - | 1 | 4 | 1 | - | 6 |
| Belgium | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | - | - | 8 |
| Bolivia | - | - | 2 | 2 | - | - | - | 4 |
| Bosnia-Herzegovina | - | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | - | 2 |
| Brazil | - | 1 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 1 | - | 11 |
| Bulgaria | - | - | 2 | 3 | 5 | - | - | 10 |
| Cameroon | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | - | 2 |
| Canada | - | 1 | 4 | 12 | 4 | - | - | 21 |
| Chile | - | - | 1 | 3 | 2 | - | - | 6 |
| China | 1 | - | 1 | 4 | 3 | - | - | 9 |
|
Costa Rica |
- | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | 1 |
| Cote D'Ivoire | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 |
| Croatia | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 |
| Cuba | - | - | 2 | 2 | 4 | - | - | 8 |
| Czech Republic | - | - | 1 | 3 | 1 | - | - | 5 |
| DPR of Korea | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | 1 |
| DR of The Congo | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | 2 |
| Denmark | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | 1 |
| Ecuador | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | 1 |
| Egypt | - | - | 3 | 5 | - | - | - | 8 |
| Ethiopia | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | 2 |
| Finland | - | 1 | 1 | 6 | 1 | - | - | 9 |
| France | - | 1 | 10 | 8 | 9 | 5 | - | 33 |
| Germany | 1 | 3 | 15 | 12 | 8 | - | - | 39 |
| Ghana | - | 1 | - | 1 | 3 | 2 | - | 7 |
| Greece | - | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | 2 |
| Guatemala | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | 1 |
| Haiti | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 |
| Hungary | - | - | 1 | 3 | 3 | - | - | 7 |
| Iceland | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | 2 |
| India | - | 1 | 3 | 5 | - | 1 | - | 10 |
| Indonesia | - | - | - | 3 | 4 | - | - | 7 |
| Iran, Islamic Rep. | - | - | 3 | 1 | 1 | - | - | 5 |
| Iraq | - | - | - | 2 | - | - | - | 2 |
| Ireland | - | - | 1 | 1 | 2 | - | - | 4 |
| Israel | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | 1 |
| Italy | - | 1 | 6 | 6 | 2 | - | - | 15 |
| Jamaica | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | 1 |
| Japan | 1 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 9 | - | - | 21 |
| Jordan | - | - | - | 1 | 3 | 1 | - | 5 |
| Kazakhstan | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 |
| Kenya | - | - | - | 1 | 2 | - | - | 3 |
| Korea, Rep of | - | 1 | 1 | 5 | 11 | 1 | - | 19 |
| Lebanon | - | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | - | 4 |
| Libyan Arab Jam. | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | 1 |
| Lithuania | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | 1 |
| Malaysia | - | - | 1 | 3 | 2 | - | - | 6 |
| Mauritius | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 |
| Mexico | - | - | 3 | 4 | 2 | 1 | - | 10 |
| Mongolia | - | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | - | 2 |
| Morocco | - | - | 2 | 1 | 1 | - | - | 4 |
| Netherlands | - | 1 | 2 | 1 | - | - | - | 4 |
| New Zealand | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | - | - | 2 |
| Nigeria | - | - | - | 3 | 3 | - | - | 6 |
| Pakistan | - | - | 2 | 1 | - | - | - | 3 |
| Panama | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | 1 |
| Peru | - | - | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | - | 6 |
| Philippines | - | - | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | - | 10 |
| Poland | - | - | 2 | 3 | 4 | - | - | 9 |
| Portugal | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | 1 |
| Romania | - | - | - | 1 | 5 | - | - | 6 |
| Russian Federation | 1 | 1 | 7 | 21 | 5 | - | - | 35 |
| Senegal | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 |
| Slovakia | - | - | 3 | 1 | 1 | - | - | 5 |
| Slovenia | - | - | 1 | 2 | - | - | - | 3 |
| South Africa | - | - | 3 | 2 | 2 | - | - | 7 |
| Spain | - | - | 3 | 3 | 3 | - | - | 9 |
| Sri Lanka | - | - | - | 1 | 3 | - | - | 4 |
| Sudan | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | 1 |
| Sweden | - | 2 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 1 | - | 12 |
| Switzerland | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | 1 |
| Syrian Arab Rep. | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | 2 |
| Thailand | - | 1 | 1 | - | 2 | - | - | 4 |
| Tunisia | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | 1 |
| Turkey | - | - | 1 | 2 | 3 | 1 | - | 7 |
| Uganda | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | - | 3 |
| UK | - | 1 | 15 | 15 | 9 | 3 | - | 43 |
| Ukraine | - | - | - | 1 | 3 | 1 | - | 5 |
| UR of Tanzania | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | - | - | 2 |
| Uruguay | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | - | - | 2 |
| USA | 1 | 2 | 33 | 29 | 27 | 1 | - | 93 |
| Uzbekistan | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 |
| Venezuela | - | - | - | 3 | 1 | - | - | 4 |
| Vietnam | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | 2 |
| Yugoslavia | - | - | - | 1 | 2 | - | - | 3 |
| Zambia | - | 1 | - | - | - | 1 | - | 2 |
| Zimbabwe | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | 2 |
| GRAND TOTAL | 6 | 33 | 171 | 235 | 209 | 33 | - | 687 |
The geographic distribution of the professional staff of the Department of Safeguards, similar to the one for the Agency as a whole, is also available and indicates a similar pattern.*
The Agency has been attempting for some time to improve its recruiting of women into the professional ranks. Over the last decade, there has been a very gradual increase in the percentage of women filling positions in the professional grades, from about 12% in 1989 to 18% at present. Table 4-5 gives the distribution of professional positions P-1 through D in 2002, by gender.
Table 4-5. Distribution of IAEA Professional Positions by Gender
|
|
P-1 |
P-2 |
P-3 |
P-4 |
P-5 |
D |
Men |
0 |
21 |
181 |
209 |
166 |
31 |
Women |
0 |
16 |
55 |
44 |
16 |
5 |
Total |
0 |
37 |
236 |
253 |
182 |
36 |
To a certain degree, the table reflects the generally lower percentage of women engaged in the technical fields of relevance to the IAEA compared to men. However, it may also foster more sympathetic considerations of applications by women for professional posts, given the Agency’s expressed desire to increase the representation of women in these categories.
* See, for example, GOV 2679-GC (XXX VII)/1071
4.3.6 Health Insurance
Regular staff normally enroll in the Agency's health insurance
plan, which provides coverage for medical and hospital costs and some dental
costs. The cost of these plans is paid for by contributions from the employee
and the Agency. The relative contributions depend on the salary of the
employee, with the Agency share going from 80% at the low end of the salary
scale to 30% at the high end (see Table 4.6 which shows relative contributions
for the professional grades).
Table 4-6. Percentage of Medical
Insurance Premiums Paid by Agency
and by Employee for Various Salary
Ranges
|
Monthly Salary |
From To |
Up to 1370 |
1370 - 2740 |
2740 - 4110 |
4110 - 5480 |
5480 - 6850 |
Over 6850 |
Agency’s Share |
% |
80 |
70 |
60 |
50 |
40 |
30 |
Staff Members Share |
% |
20 |
30 |
40 |
50 |
60 |
70 |
The total monthly premiums (i.e. the sum of the staff member’s and the Agency’s contributions) for the full medical insurance plan administered by Van Breda is 205 Euros for each man insured, 239 Euros for each woman, and 109 Euros for each child under 18 years of age.
There is also a retirement medical insurance plan, which cost is also shared by the retired employee and the Agency, again on a sliding scale based on monthly income during the last full month of service.
Type A* cost-free experts may participate in the Agency’s health insurance plan (Van Breda). Alternatively, a CFE may elect to continue participation in an existing health plan administered by his or her U.S. employer if it includes foreign coverage and is similar in scope to the Van Breda plan.
The Agency plan covers a large fraction (usually 80%) of the medical costs. Coverage includes doctor's services (in office, home, or hospital), hospitalization, and other medical and dental expenses (e.g., prescription drugs, x‑rays, dental work, hearing aids, spectacles) subject to certain conditions. Some items (e.g., dental appliances, spectacles, and psychiatric care) have ceilings. Cosmetic surgery, unless necessary as a result of injury, is not covered. Coverage is worldwide.
The IAEA plan operates on a reimbursement rather than a direct‑payment basis for most ordinary medical expenses. Thus, for minor expenses, such as office visits or tests, the staff member must be prepared to pay in advance, either by cash or by Eurocheck (credit cards are not acceptable). For major expenses, however, such as surgery or extended hospitalization in Austria, the Agency will pay a large portion of the bill in advance directly to the health services provider, to ensure prompt treatment.
World-wide coverage is provided by the IAEA plan, but on a reimbursement basis. Staff should also be aware that unless special arrangements are made before their termination at the Agency, coverage during their return travel to the United States may not be covered.
* Type A cost-free experts are those that are on the IAEA payroll. Type B cost-free experts are paid by their U.S. employer.
4.3.7 Pensions
Regular staff members are required to participate in the United Nations Joint Staff Pension Fund (UNJSPF), for which they pay 7.9% and the Agency 15.8% of a "pensionable remuneration", defined by the regulations of the fund and roughly equal to the net annual emolument. After completing 5 years of service, staff members become vested in the fund - that is, if they leave after that time they retain not only their own but the Agency's contribution. If they leave before, they receive only their own contribution plus interest accrued at the rate of about 3%, compounded annually. Under special circumstances and upon authorization by the Director General, instead of participating in the UNJSPF, regular staff and CFEs may continue participation in a national governmental pension plan, or the pension plan of their former employer. If the staff member can show that he or she is contributing to an outside pension plan acceptable to the IAEA, and is receiving no contribution from anyone else, the Agency will contribute to that pension plan, usually on a reimbursement basis.
Beginning in the year 2000, another option became available to U.S. CFEs. Because most CFEs cannot expect to serve for the five years required to become vested in the Agency’s plan, the CFE may elect to have his salary augmented by the amount that the Agency would have contributed to the UNJSPF; i.e., 15.8% of his/her "pensionable remuneration." This contribution is distributed to the CFE on a semi-annual basis. See Appendix B for the official policy statement relevant to this option. It should be noted that the individual making this choice will need to fill out the formal application in order to receive this benefit (see Attachment 1 in Appendix B).
4.3.8 Annual Leave, Home Leave, Sick Leave and Holidays
Annual leave is accrued at the rate of 2 1/2 working days per month. It may be accumulated, but no more than 60 working days can be carried over from one calendar year to the next.
Staff members are entitled to home leave once in every two years, with travel time and compensation for travel expenses (staff members may return home on leave at their own expense as often as desired, when the accumulated leave-time and work-schedule permit). The first home leave for regular staff would occur during the second year of service, provided that total service is expected to exceed 2 1/2 years. Since cost‑free expert appointments are initially for no more than two years, an extension of at least 6 months would have to be in place for a CFE to take reimbursed home leave during the second year.
Sick-leave entitlements depend on the type of appointment and the amount of continuous service at the Agency before taking sick leave. Staff members holding permanent appointments or who have completed three years of continuous service are entitled to up to nine months of sick leave on full pay, and nine months on half-pay in any period of four consecutive years. Staff members on probationary contracts or holding a fixed‑term appointment of at least one year but who have not completed three years of continuous service are entitled to up to three months on full pay and three months on half-pay in any period of twelve consecutive months (subject to certain limitations on the total amount of sick leave taken in any consecutive four years).
Holidays are determined by the Director General. There are usually ten holidays officially approved during each year. During calendar year 2002, the Agency officially observed the following holidays at Headquarters:
|
|
Tuesday |
- |
1 January |
|
|
|
Friday |
- |
22 February |
|
|
|
Friday |
- |
29 March |
|
|
|
Monday |
- |
1 April |
|
|
|
Wednesday |
- |
1 May |
|
|
|
Monday |
- |
20 May |
|
|
|
Friday |
- |
25 October |
|
|
|
Thursday |
- |
5 December |
|
|
Wednesday |
- |
25 December | ||
|
|
Thursday |
- |
26 December |
|
4.3.9 Taxes
According to current U.S. tax law, foreign-earned income up to a limit of $78,000 for tax year 2001 and $80,000 for tax year 2002 may be excluded from federal taxation under certain conditions. The main condition is that (a) the U.S. citizen is a bona fide resident of a foreign country or countries for an uninterrupted period that includes an entire tax year, or (b) that the U.S. citizen is physically present in a foreign country or countries for at least 330 full days during any 12 consecutive months. Cost‑free experts and regular staff employed at the IAEA for at least a year would, therefore, qualify under one or the other of these conditions.
Moreover, under an agreement between the U.S. Government and the IAEA, the Agency will pay any tax due on income derived from it in excess of the above amounts and the United States will reimburse the Agency for these payments. At first glance, therefore, it would appear that U.S. members of Agency staff receive their Agency-derived income, up to any amount, free of federal taxation. That is true, but the overall effect on the staff member's federal tax is not that simple. First of all, the tax on Agency-derived income is calculated as "first-earned income" - that is, as though the staff member had no other income. Further, this income must include not only salary but all allowances received from the Agency, such as the assignment, repatriation, and education grants, the rental subsidy, and moving expenses. These may cause the staff member's Agency-derived income to exceed the foreign-earned income exclusion limit. The portion of this gross income in excess of the above limits (or the pro-rated exclusion for those tax years which were only partially spent at the Agency), therefore, must be declared. Since it is treated as first-earned income, the excess will be taxed at the lowest rates. Although the tax, so calculated, will be reimbursed by the Agency, the effect is to "bump up" any other (i.e., non-Agency-derived) income the staff member may have (for example, pensions, interest, dividends, or rental income) into the higher tax brackets. The net effect, then, is to cause non-Agency-derived income to be taxed at a higher rate than it otherwise may have been.
A second complication is that under the tax agreement between the Agency and the Internal Revenue Service, the Agency's income-tax reimbursement to the staff member is, itself, regarded as taxable income by the IRS. When the staff member receives his or her annual wage statement from the Agency, this reimbursement will be included as part of what is called the "grossed-up" salary. In effect, staff members will pay a tax on their reimbursement to their income tax. The amount of this "tax on a tax" will, however, be considerably less than would have been paid in the absence of the combined foreign-earned-income exclusion and Agency tax reimbursement to the staff member.
It should be clear that none of the considerations above exempt the staff member from filing an annual Federal (and State and local) income tax return. It should also be borne in mind that the Agency will not pay any penalties assessed for late payment or underestimates.
In most cases, the beginning of employment at the Agency will not coincide with the beginning of the tax year (assumed here to be Jan. 1). In such cases, the maximum foreign‑earned income tax exclusion must be pro‑rated on the basis of the number of qualifying days in the tax year. This is done by dividing the number of qualifying days in the year by 365 and multiplying the result by the maximum limit, either $78,000 or $80,000 depending on the tax year. (The number of qualifying days is the number of full days during which you were physically present in the foreign country, excluding any days that were spent back in the United States).
The tax law provides for an automatic two‑month extension of the tax‑filing deadline for persons resident abroad on the due‑date for filing ‑ i.e., from April 15 to June 15. However, if you owe tax, the full amount is due April 15, not June 15. If you expect to qualify for a foreign‑earned income exclusion under either of the two tests (bona fide residence or physical presence in a foreign country) more than two months after the regular due date of your return, you can request an extension to 30 days after the date on which you would meet the time requirements. Thus, for example, if you start work at the Agency on September 1, 2002, and you applied for an extension on these grounds, your return for the tax year 2002 would not be due until October 1, 2003. To obtain the extension you must file Form 2350, Application for Extension of Time to File U.S. Income Tax Return, with the IRS Center in Philadelphia, PA., or the local IRS representative. This form may be obtained from, and approved by, Internal Revenue Service representatives located at certain overseas offices. In Europe, IRS offices are maintained in Berlin, Germany; Paris, France; Rome, Italy; and London, England. Also, during the filing season (January‑June) IRS representatives visit embassies in various foreign countries, including Austria, to assist taxpayers living abroad. Information on the visiting schedule can be obtained from the consular office at the U.S. Embassy in Vienna. Income-tax forms and publications may also be obtained from the Embassy during the filing period, or from Richard Hilliard, Room A0616, extension 26139.
It is important to note that the requirements for paying the quarterly estimated tax are the same for taxpayers resident abroad as for those in the United States, and that the first installment of the estimated tax is due on April 15 of the tax year. Your estimated gross income need not, however, include the amount you expect to exclude under the foreign‑earned income exclusion. You should show the Agency your calculation of the quarterly estimated tax. The Agency will give you a check, made out either to you or to the IRS, for the amount due, if any, on Agency‑derived income. Upon first checking in at the Agency you should ask Mr. Hilliard for information on the procedures for reimbursement of quarterly estimated tax payments. Once again, attention is drawn to the fact that the Agency will not pay any tax penalties assessed for underestimating taxes due, or for late payment.
It is not possible in this brief discussion to cover all the questions that will arise on individual tax situations. There have been many complaints from US‑IAEA staff about the complexity and confusion surrounding the filing of income tax returns. U.S. citizens going to the IAEA would, therefore, be well‑advised to avail themselves of whatever information they can obtain in advance of going over. As a minimum, one should get and read IRS Publication 54, Tax Guide for U.S. Citizens and Resident Aliens Abroad, and Forms 2350 (see above for title) and 2555, Foreign Earned Income. Publication 54 presents a worked example of a return, including Form 2555. Those who rent out their homes during their absence should be aware that the rental income in excess of expenses is taxable ‑ see IRS Publication 527, Residential Rental Property (Including Rental of Vacation Homes); the corresponding tax form is Schedule E of Form 1040, Supplemental Income Schedule. The tax treatment of moving expenses for those moving to a foreign country is explained in Publication 521, Moving Expenses, and the corresponding tax form is Form 3903F, Foreign Moving Expenses. You may also wish to bring with you one or more of the popular income tax guides, copies of your income‑tax returns for one or two previous years, and copies of other IRS publications which, from prior experience, you think you will need (a general tax guide is Publication 17, Your Federal Income Tax). It may be helpful, before leaving, to prepare a mock income-tax return for the first tax year you will be at the Agency, using estimates for domestic and Agency‑derived income and for deductible expenses. This exercise will identify the kinds of documentation you will need to bring with you and also suggest possible questions at a time when it is still convenient to consult the IRS or your tax adviser or accountant. Note, also, that all the foregoing discussion applies only to Federal income tax.
Upon request (by letter only) the IRS will provide a special package of tax forms and publications for overseas filers (Publication 776). To obtain this, write to the following address:
U.S. Internal Revenue Service
Assistant Commissioner (International)
Attention: IN:C:TPS
950 L'Enfant Plaza SW
Washington, D.C. 20024
Consult your state internal revenue
service about how to treat foreign‑earned income under state tax law. Be sure
to bring any State income tax forms and instruction booklets with you or have
them sent to you, as they are not available in Vienna.
5.
Moving to Vienna
5.1
Transportation
Arrangements
The Agency will arrange for and cover the expense of travel by the appointee and dependents to Vienna. The approved mode of travel is by air, business class if the scheduled flight time exceeds seven hours. In special cases, the Agency may approve travel by sea, but the total cost to the Agency may not exceed the cost of air travel. The appointee must notify the Agency of the planned departure date; upon receiving this information the Agency will purchase the necessary airline tickets. If appointees wish to purchase their own tickets, authorization must first be obtained from the Agency in order to be reimbursed for the cost. In this case, the Agency reimbursement will amount to only 75% of the cost of a full one-way economy-class airfare.
The Agency will reimburse the traveler flying tourist or economy class for the cost of up to 10 kg of excess baggage per person. Business-class fares from North America to Europe normally include a baggage allowance of 30 kg per person; for such fares, the Agency will reimburse the traveler for the cost of excess baggage up to 10 kg only if the airfare does not include the 30 kg allowance. To claim a reimbursement the staff member should present the excess baggage ticket at the Agency. Excess baggage costs related to transporting household pets will not be reimbursed.
Sec. 5.3.1 gives information on getting from the Vienna International Airport to the city.
5.2 Shipment and Storage of Household and Personal Effects
The Agency will pay the cost of shipping and storing household and personal effects up to certain limits. Upon notification of acceptance of an Agency offer, the Section for Administrative Support will instruct three shipping agents in the staff member’s area to contact the appointee to estimate the costs of shipping and storage. The agents will forward their estimates to the Agency on special forms. The Agency then will make its selection (usually the lowest bidder) and place an order with the agent for the shipment. It will also notify the appointee of the choice and provide particulars concerning the shipment, including advice on obtaining proper insurance. If the air-freight portion of the shipment arrives in Vienna before the staff member has settled into permanent living quarters, it will be stored temporarily. Insurance will be provided up to a maximum value of $16 per kg of shipment.
The limits on the total amount that can be shipped at Agency expense are 10,800 pounds (1080 cubic feet) for a single person, and 18,000 pounds (1800 cubic feet) for a person with dependents. Transport of motor vehicles (including motorcycles), boats, trailers, and pets is not included.
Shipment must be by surface, except for a limited amount of goods needed for immediate use, which may be shipped by air. The limits on air shipment are as follows: the staff member is entitled to an air freight shipment of up to 495 pounds (49.5 cubic feet). The first dependent is allowed an additional 330 pounds (33 cubic feet) and each additional dependent may ship another 165 pounds (16.5 cubic feet). However, twice the weight (volume) of any such air shipments must then be deducted from the total amounts stipulated above.
The Agency will also pay the cost of storing household goods in the United States, again within limits. This limit is simply the difference in cost between shipping all of the household/personal effects to the Agency (and then back again) and the transport cost of the actual shipment. The costs of storing motor vehicles (including motorcycles), and boats, are not covered.
There also is a time limit for reimbursed storage costs. This is the period of service of the staff member or seven years, whichever is less. In addition to long-term storage, the Agency will reimburse the staff member for the costs of up to 45 days of storage of the shipment at the destination (i.e., Vienna), pending removal to permanent housing.
Apart from this limit, it should be noted that the Agency does not pay all the costs associated with storage. The cost of insurance for the stored goods, for example, is not covered, although the cost of transporting them to and from the storage site is.
Air shipments generally take about 3-4 weeks, and surface shipments generally about 8 weeks. Appointees should take these delays into consideration in choosing items to bring with them in their personal luggage.
In special cases, a new staff member may request permission to personally arrange to have three movers' bids submitted directly to the Agency. This action may speed up the process of moving if time considerations are important. These arrangements must be made ahead of time through Mr. Josef Brein, in the Administrative Support Section of the Division of General Services at the Agency, extension 21167.
5.2.1 Appliances
The Austrian domestic electrical system differs from that of the United States in that it operates at 220 volts a.c. and a frequency of 50 hertz (cycles per second) instead of 110 volts a.c. and 60 hertz. This complicates the operation of U.S. domestic appliances in Vienna, unless they are of the switchable dual‑voltage type.
U.S. 110‑volt appliances must be operated from a 2:1 step‑down transformer (i.e., one that reduces the supply voltage from 220 to 110 volts a.c.) or, in certain cases, from a solid‑state converter that blocks half of the sine wave of incoming voltage. Failure to reduce the voltage by one means or the other will usually either burn out or severely damage the appliance. However, reducing the voltage does not guarantee proper operation, since certain kinds of appliances will not work properly at 50 hertz, regardless of the voltage.
It is impossible to give a general rule about the operability of every conceivable type and model of appliance. Purely resistive (i.e., heater‑type) appliances can be operated from transformers and converters that put out the proper voltage; that is, they are not sensitive to the frequency. Toasters, toaster ovens, irons, electric frying pans, waffle irons, heaters, and hair dryers fall in this category. For such heating devices, a converter of the appropriate power rating can be used and is much cheaper and lighter than a transformer of the same capacity.* The older‑style non‑battery‑operated electric clocks and clock radios will run more slowly at 50 hertz, as will some phonograph turntables and tape players.
Table 5‑1 summarizes advice on common appliances from a supplier of appliances for overseas use. The reader should be warned, however, that we have had conflicting information from different sources. A representative of the Hoover Company advises that although some of their vacuum cleaners will work on a transformer, others having complex electronics will not. One correspondent reported that the vacuum cleaner worked at 50 hertz, but noisily and more slowly than usual. Both Litton and GE concur that microwave ovens should not be operated at 50 hertz, but another visitor claims to have done so successfully. Smith‑Corona advises against using either electric (hammer‑type) or electronic (daisy wheel) typewriters at 50 hertz. GE cautions against operating stereo systems on 50 hertz unless the operating manual or nameplate specifically allows such operation; some people have done so for several years without any noticeable deleterious effects.
* Unfortunately,
converters seem to burn out rather easily, so it's best to bring several.
Table 5-1. Use of Appliances at 220 v, 50 hertz
(based on information
supplied by ABC Trading Co.)
Washers |
Very sensitive to cycle (frequency) |
Dryers |
Some will work on 50 as well as 60 hertz; check nameplate or operating manual |
Refrigerators |
Use transformers |
Microwaves |
Sensitive to frequency. Use only 220v/50 hertz models. |
Dishwashers |
Will not work at 50 hertz |
Vacuum cleaners |
Use transformer |
| Electric Shaver | Use transformer |
Electric typewriters (hammer type) |
Will not work |
Electronic typewriters (daisy wheel) |
Use transformer |
Hair dryers |
Use converter |
Toasters |
Use converter |
Irons |
Use converter |
Electric frying pans |
Use converter |
Toaster ovens |
Use converter |
Waffle irons |
Use converter |
Heaters |
Use converter |
Coffee Makers (drip-and percolator-types) |
Use converter |
Coffee Grinders |
Use transformer |
Mixers |
Hand-held types will work on transformer, but standing types tend to overheat and should be used in short bursts only. |
Blenders |
Use transformer |
Food processors |
Like stand-type mixers, tend to overheat |
Sewing machines |
Use transformer |
Audio cassette recorders |
Use transformer |
Stereos |
Most will work on a transformer, some not. If nameplate or operator's manual says 50 hertz is alright, use transformer. Records and tape-drives play more slowly. |
Computers |
Some are dual voltage; all can run on transformers (most printers O.K. too) |
Some domestic appliance models are of the dual‑voltage type, equipped with a switch that allows operation at either 110 or 220 volts. Such devices can operate at 50 hertz, also. Examples of dual‑voltage devices are certain models of electric shavers, pocket‑calculator chargers, hair dryers with blowers, and personal computers. Some, while not being dual‑voltage, stipulate on the manufacturer's name plate (the one bearing the model and serial number) that they can operate on 110 volts and either 50 or 60 hertz; such devices can be successfully operated from a step‑down transformer. Personal computers will usually operate on 50 or 60 hertz; some have a switchable power supply enabling them to operate on either 110 or 220 volts depending on the setting of the switch.
Major appliances, such as refrigerators, clothes washers, dryers, and dish washers present additional problems. They are all heavy power-consumers and, therefore, require large transformers. They may also be too large to fit into the relatively small kitchens of Viennese apartments (this is particularly true of the typical American refrigerator.) Refrigerators can be operated with transformers. Some dryers can be and some not. American clothes washers may present a problem because they typically use a source of hot water whereas some Viennese apartments do not have hot‑water reservoirs but heat water continuously on demand by passing it over a heating coil. Austrian clothes washers have internal heaters that bring the water to the proper temperature. Providing hot‑air venting for clothes dryers is apt to be another problem. For these reasons, it is usually better not to bring over such major appliances but to count on purchasing European models either new or used (for example, from departing staff members) or on renting apartments that already have them. However, recognize, that Austrian models (a) will be more expensive than their U.S. counterparts, and (b) may not be as convenient, or operate as efficiently. Austrian washing machines, for example, tend to be rather slow and have smaller capacities than American ones, and refrigerators will likely be much smaller and may lack freezer compartments. For drying clothes, you may have to resort to the old‑fashioned method of hanging them on a rack in the hallway or a bathroom.
Televisions and video-cassette recorders present a different kind of problem that has nothing to do with the electrical supply. The European encoding system for TV transmissions is different from the U.S. system, and European TV sets also have a different number of scanning lines. Consequently, U.S. TVs cannot receive European broadcasts and vice versa. American VCRs will also not be compatible with European TVs or video tapes. It would, therefore, be useless to bring an American TV or VCR to Vienna to receive European broadcasts. (An American TV could be used solely as a monitor for an American VCR which would have to play American tapes exclusively). An alternative is to purchase a dual TV/VCR system which can operate on either the US-or the European-standard. The Austrian encoding system is called PAL-B; the U.S. system is called NTSC. Dual system VCRs are common and rather inexpensive on the European market.
In the absence of specific information in the instruction manual that comes with an appliance, or on the nameplate, it is best to consult the manufacturer about operating it at 220 v (with a step‑down transformer or converter) and 50 hertz. Many manufacturers have toll‑free telephone numbers to call for advice. Many of them also manufacture 220 volt, 50 hertz models for the export market, and can refer you to export distributors in various parts of the country. These distributors usually handle appliances from several manufacturers. Table 5‑2 is a partial list of those carrying export models. Even though export models, made in relatively small numbers, cost more than domestic models, it may pay to buy them here and ship them to Vienna, rather than buying them there, where the prices of appliances are apt to be much higher.
It is also cheaper to buy transformers in the United States than in Vienna. A supplier in the New York area is the ABC Trading Co. (see Table 5‑2 for address and phone number). This company also supplies a large variety of appliances for use on 220 v, 50 hertz and represents almost every major U.S. manufacturer (and many foreign ones). Make sure to get transformers and converters of the proper size for the application. Toasters, for example, usually operate at 600‑1500 watts, depending on the size (the power will usually be given on the nameplate or in the instruction manual). A personal computer may require only 500 watts. Too large a transformer will be heavier (e.g., 20 lbs for a 1500 watt versus 10 lbs for a 500‑watt unit) and more expensive than necessary, but one that is too small may not allow proper operation (or may be unsafe). Also, keep in mind, in considering how many to buy, that moving transformers from one location to another can be a nuisance. Multi‑outlet strips allow the operation of two or more low‑power appliances from a single transformer.
Austrian electrical outlets will not accept American plugs, necessitating the use of special adaptors, even with dual‑voltage devices, such as certain models of electric shavers. Such plugs can be purchased inexpensively from appliance exporters or some hardware stores in the United States.
Besides some of the distributors listed in Table 5-2, the Internet offers a plethora of web-sites to explore. One, offering electronic equipment, is www.mindlogic.com and another, offering appliances, is www.220voltappliances.com. The former claim to always be open (even 24 hours on holidays) and may also be reached at 1480 Wharton Way, Concord, California, 94521, Phone: (925) 246-7102, Fax: (925) 686-9968.
A word of caution is necessary here. It has been suggested that it might be a violation of Austrian safety regulations to use U.S. appliances or transformers that do not conform to the Austrian electrical safety code. Technically, if a fire were caused by such use, the tenant might be liable for damages to the apartment. Although U.S. appliances and transformers are, and have been, in wide use by Americans in Vienna, we do not know of any case in which this has actually occurred. Also, we note that the Austrian‑American Educational Commission (Fulbright Commission), composed of members appointed by the United States and Austrian governments, advises its grantees to buy transformers in the United States. Nevertheless, we feel that the staff member should be aware of the foregoing caveat. This also underscores the great importance of not overloading the transformers by exceeding their rated capacity. Transformers normally run warm, but if they are too hot to keep your hand on comfortably, they are overloaded. Transformers are often available from departing Americans. Check the bulletin boards at the VIC for bargains.
Table 5-2. Distributors
of 220 Volt, 50 Hertz Appliances
and Transformers
California |
Aris Export Co. 1501 Vermont Avenue San Francisco, California 94107 Phone: (415) 550-8605 |
|
Asmara Overseas Electronics 5568 Sepulveda Boulevard Culver City, California 90230 Phone: (310) 398-0080 Fax: (310) 390-5250 |
| District of Columbia | Export Electronics, Inc. 1719 Connecticut Avenue Washington, D.C. 22209 Phone: (800) 513-3907 Fax: (202) 265-2435 |
|
General Electronics Co. 4513 Wisconsin Avenue NW Washington, D.C. 20016 Phone: (202) 362-8300 |
| Florida |
Caronel Enterprises |
|
Marcelin & Son 2781 NW 104th Court Miami, Florida 33172 Phone: (305) 593-1183 | |
|
LSY International Corp. 1910-B NW 96th Avenue Miami, Florida 33172 Phone: (305) 597-0421 | |
|
AAAA World Import-Export 6700 NW 77th Court Miami, Florida 33166 Phone: (305) 594-6900 |
Illinois |
International Shippers 22 North Sangermon St. Chicago, Illinois 60607 Phone: (312) 432-0011 |
| Broadway Appliance and Furniture
Co 16 North Broadway Aurora, IL 60505 Phone: (630) 897-8688 | |
Kentucky |
LSY International 115 So. Sherrin Avenue, Suite 5 Louisville, Kentucky 40207 Phone: (502) 893-9300 |
Louisiana |
Ideal Appliances 3404 Hessmer Avenue Metairie, Louisiana 70011 Phone: (504) 888-4232 |
Maryland |
Piraeus International 3909 Eastern Avenue Baltimore, Maryland 21224 Phone: (410) 675-4696 |
Massachusetts |
Astro International 1408 Center Street Boston, Massachusetts 02131 Phone: (617) 323-6993 |
| New York | ABC Trading Co. 31 Canal Street New York, New York 10002 Phone: (212) 228-5080 |
|
Appliances Overseas 276 Fifth Avenue New York, New York 10001-4509 Phone: (212) 545-8001 Fax: (212) 545-8005 | |
|
47th Street Photo 67 W. 47th Street New York, New York 10036-2880 Phone: 1-800-235-5016 (out of state) 1-718-722-4750 (in state) | |
|
Intercontinental Appliances 4818 192nd Street Flushing, New York 11365 Phone: (718) 357-5888 | |
|
LSY International 41 Mercedes Way Suite 25 Deer Park, New York 11729 Phone: (516) 254-3434 |
| Texas | Dual Electronics, Inc. 5674 Hillcraft Houston, Texas 77036 Phone: (713) 784-3825 Fax: (713) 784-0151 |
|
Western International Distributors 720 Shepard Drive Houston, Texas 77077 Phone: (713) 869-6671 |
Virginia |
Atlantic Exports 2822 Juniper Street Fairfax, Virginia 22031 Phone: (703) 573-8383 |
Washington |
Mielle Authorized Service 9047 12th Avenue NW Seattle, Washington 98117-3326 Phone: (206) 715-8888 |
* Will provide names of
dealers in any part of the United States.
** Electronics only.
5.2.2 What to Bring
5.2.2.1 General
Two factors should be taken into account in deciding what household goods and personal effects to bring or ship to Vienna: the high cost of living, and the scarcity of furnished rental apartments in Vienna.
Appliances, furniture, clothing, and housewares are much more expensive in Vienna than in the United States (see Section 6.3 on the cost of living). Therefore, it is advantageous, especially in view of the generous shipping allowances, to ship as much as possible of these goods as are likely to be needed during the stay in Vienna. Some possible exceptions, dictated by the different conditions there, have already been noted: major appliances, such as refrigerators and washing machines, and very large pieces of furniture such as king‑sized beds. Electrical appliances should be either of the dual‑voltage type or operable from transformers or solid‑state converters and capable of operating at 50 cycles.
5.2.2.2 Clothing
The Austrian climate tends to be colder in the winter and cooler in the summer than that of many regions of the United States. It has been compared to the climates in the Northern, Midwestern, and New England states. For example, the normal average temperature in Vienna during January is 30 F, compared with 32o F in New York City and 35 in Albuquerque; for July, the figures are 67o F, 77o F, and 79o F, respectively. Average annual precipitation in Vienna is 25.6 inches, compared with 38.8 in New York City and 10.75 in Albuquerque. People also tend to spend more time out‑of‑doors. Walking and use of public transportation, while not unknown in the United States, are common, thrifty and convenient in Austria. Therefore, even, "non-outdoorsmen" will spend time in the open air in Vienna, as opposed to being in an automobile as much as in America. For these reasons, it is advisable to bring adequately warm clothing, such as heavy woolens or insulated coats or parkas. It should be noted that pure wool tends to be warmer than synthetics or blends containing a high percentage of synthetics. A raincoat with a removable lining, a warm overcoat, hats, and boots, the latter for protection against the snow, will be useful.
Viennese tend to dress more conservatively than Americans, both for business and social occasions. Business-wear for men invariably includes ties and jackets, while suits tend towards the darker colors. Women's clothing tends to be dressier than for the corresponding occasions in the United States. Although slacks are worn for shopping or outings, for social occasions, the theater and opera, dressier clothing is usually more appropriate. Darker colors have traditionally applied in women's clothing as well, although in the past several years brighter colors have become increasingly popular. Scarves of all types are fashionable.
It must be noted that in recent years clothing has become less and less formal, and that Austrian dress, especially in the larger cities, has become nearly indistinguishable from that of Western Europeans and Americans. Costumes that might have attracted disapproving stares ten or twenty years ago now seem to be accepted as a matter of course. As one example, blue jeans are very common, as are T-shirts (almost always imprinted in English!)
Dress balls are extremely popular in Vienna, particularly during the winter season. Dress at such affairs is quite formal, requiring tuxedos for the men and long dresses for the women. Tuxes can be rented or purchased in Vienna, but it may pay to bring one.
Women with tall slim figures may not be able to find ready‑ to‑wear clothing that fits (also, the selection of such clothing is in general more limited in variety and style than in the United States). Women with long, narrow feet may also have problems getting a proper fit. These are additional reasons for bringing as much of your anticipated clothing needs as possible.
Clothing also tends to be significantly more expensive in Austria than in the
United States for the same quality, perhaps 50% to 100% more. For this reason,
new staff and their families may wish to purchase certain basic items in the
United States, such as sleepwear, underwear, stockings, jeans, as well as some
outerwear. Although it may be less expensive to purchase clothing in the
United States, Austrian clothing is very well made and often stylish. Clothing
for hiking and mountaineering, and the traditional Austrian loden are of very
high quality and a good investment. New arrivals may wish to save at least
part of the clothing budget for purchases in Vienna.
5.2.2.3 Household Tools and Kitchen Items
When selecting these items, it should be kept in mind that Austria is on the metric system (grams, decagrams, and kilograms for weight, millimeters, centimeters, and meters for length, degrees Celsius for temperature).
A set of hand tools ‑ hammer, screwdrivers, pliers, wrenches, tape measure, ‑ are handy things to have along. Beware, however, of driving nails or picture hooks into the walls without first consulting the landlord. Also, tape measures, rulers, thermometers (oral and others) and scales calibrated in both kinds of units can save a lot of calculation.
The American Women's Association guidebook, Living in Vienna,* recommends bringing a "do‑it‑from‑scratch" cookbook, measuring cups and spoons marked in English units (they are hard to find in Vienna), and oven and meat thermometers. A good swivel-type vegetable peeler, also hard to find in Vienna, will be useful. Since meat cuts are different in Austria, it is helpful to have a “dictionary” for beef, pork, veal, and lamb cuts (as well as for other food items). Living in Vienna has this - and much, much more of interest to anyone taking up residence in Vienna.
*Incidentally, this guidebook is the pre-eminent choice for U.S. citizens taking up residence in this city. It is updated periodically and is available from the American Women's Association of Vienna, 1010 Mahlerstrasse 3/7, Vienna, Austria, A-1010. This invaluable treasury of information costs less than $25 and is highly recommended.
5.2.2.4 Over-the-Counter Medications
Certain medications not requiring a prescription in the United States may be difficult to find overseas. Medicines for allergies (e.g., Allerest), coughs (e.g., Robitussin), colds (e.g., Nytol), etc., should be sent or carried to Vienna. It may be useful to stock up on Tylenol, Aleve, Sominex, etc., until you find a near-equivalent in your new home. Persons who are on maintenance drugs such as Lipitor or Zocor may wish to make arrangements with a relative or friend to periodically send the pharmaceutical over until they are assured of finding an equivalent there.
Other products typically found in a stateside "drugstore," such as beauty products or health aids are readily available in Vienna in so-called drogeries.
5.2.2.5 Documents
It is very useful to bring certain documents with you to Austria. The following is a checklist:
Passport -
An Austrian visa will not be necessary, since the Agency will arrange for the
issuance, by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, of an identity card, called a
Legitimationskarte, which will substitute for a visa.
Birth
Certificate -
A notarized
photocopy is acceptable. A birth certificate will be needed for each member
of the family.
Marriage
Certificate
This
is necessary to legitimize any children born in Austria! Also, the Agency
will require it as proof of dependency status.
Educational Degrees
Immunization Records
This
pertains primarily to children.
Children's School Records
Driver's License
You may drive
for up to one year on your U.S. driver's license. After that you must have
an Austrian driving permit. To obtain this you must submit your driver's
license (which must still be valid), a medical certificate, the
Legitimationskarte, and two photographs to the Agency's Division of
General Services (spouses follow the same procedure). It is recommended that
this be done soon after arrival. It will not be necessary to take a driving
test. For use in other countries the first year it may also be useful to have
an International Driver's License, which you cannot use, however, in the
United States. It can usually be obtained from an auto club (e.g., AAA).
Its title is something of a misnomer, since it is not actually a license but
merely attests, in various foreign languages, that you possess a valid
license. Safeguards inspectors may find it particularly useful since many
Operations Divisions perform their inspections at sites within driving
distance.
Good Moral Conduct Certificate
Called a Fuehrungszeugnis or Leumundzeugnis, this is a
statement from your local police that you have no police record. It is
required of anyone enrolling in an Austrian college or university.
Passport Photos
These
are needed for a variety of official documents (for example, for weekly or
monthly transportation passes), and although they can be gotten in Vienna, it
is convenient to have a few for each member of the family when you arrive.
Dimensions are 7x7 cm (2‑3/4x2‑3/4 inch). Polaroids are not acceptable for
an American passport.
Health Certificate and Inoculation Papers for Pets
Good Driving Record
Statement
Austrian automobile insurance operates on a "bonus-malus" basis, under which
a good driving record results in a discount in premiums, and a poor one
(e.g., being at fault in an accident) in an increase. The discounts for a
good history can be substantial. To benefit from this initially you should
bring a "To Whom It May Concern" statement from your U.S. insurance agent,
testifying that you have a good driving record and specifying the number of
years since you last presented a claim for an accident in which you were at
fault.
5.2.2.6 Books
English‑language books are
expensive in Austria and the selection is limited. Therefore, there are
advantages to bringing ones’ own, especially reference works. As a minimum, you
should consider bringing
. A German-English, English-German dictionary.
A desk dictionary for home use and a pocket dictionary for travel would be a useful combination. Good examples of the former are Cassell's German‑English, English‑German Dictionary (MacMillan Publishing Company, 866 Third Ave., N.Y., N.Y. 10022) and Langenscheidt's New College Dictionary (Langenscheidt's Publishers, Inc., 46‑35 54th Rd., Maspeth, N.Y. 11378.) Collins's German‑English, English‑German Dictionary (William Collins Sons & Co., London and Glasgow, 1978), one of the Collins "Gem" series, is a widely available pocket dictionary, but there are many others as well.
. A German grammar
. An English dictionary
. Guidebooks for the countries you intend to visit, as well as one for
Austria and Vienna.
Examples are Baedeker's Vienna (Prentice‑Hall Publishers, Rte. 9W, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632), the Michelin Green Guide to Austria (Michelin Guides and Maps, Division of Michelin Tire Co., P.O. Box 3305, Spartanburg, S.C. 29304‑3305), Fodor's Austria (David McKay Co., Inc.,Subsidiary of Random House, Inc., 201 E. 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10022), Frommer's Austria and Hungary (Prentice‑Hall), and Insight Guide: Vienna (Prentice-Hall).
. An atlas
. A U.S. almanac
. Cookbooks
. Professional texts and reference works that might be needed in connection with work at the IAEA (although the Agency has a very good technical library.)
. U.S. income tax books (e.g., Lasser's or Arthur Young's) and any special Federal and State income tax publications you think you might need. (See Sec. 4.3.9).
. Various catalogs, such as L. L. Bean, Sears, Lands End (with order forms) since many merchandisers fill overseas orders and their telephone numbers are not readily available in Europe.
You may also wish to bring foreign‑language‑English dictionaries ‑ e.g., French, Spanish, and Italian ‑ and grammars appropriate to the countries you want to visit. Also, don’t forget your address/telephone numbers book.
5.2.2.7 Pets
Some new staff may want to consider bringing their pet with them to Austria.
This can be a confusing experience. Appendix C -Pets - was proffered by
an IAEA Inspector who personally discovered what is involved.
5.2.2.8 Miscellaneous
Several Americans on the staff have recommended bringing a short‑wave radio to Vienna, which will enable you to tune in to English‑language B.B.C. broadcasts from the U.K. or other English‑language sources. A quartz‑tuned model is especially versatile since it can receive frequencies not accessible on some rotary‑tuned models. English-language news, music, and general interest programs are broadcast over the "Blue Danube" radio station, originating in Vienna. It operates at 103.8 on your FM dial (or 91.0 AM).
It need hardly be mentioned that computers have an enormous advantage in speed of communication over the postal service and provide a significant cost-savings compared to the telephone. Internet and E-mail services are readily available in Vienna and are as reliable as in the United States.
5.3 Arrival in Vienna
5.3.1 Transportation from Airport to City
The Vienna International Airport (Flughafen‑Wien) is located about 12 miles from the center of the city, near the town of Schwechat. There are several ways to get to the city from there. One is to take a bus (fare 5.8 Euros per person) to the City Air Terminal at the Hilton Hotel (Wien‑Hilton), where taxis are usually waiting. Cab fare from there to a location in the center of the city is, typically, 10 Euros (there will be a surcharge for each additional person). Another possibility is to take a mini‑van (the company name is Mazur), which has the advantage of being able to accommodate a large amount of luggage, from the airport to your hotel; the fare is about 20 Euros. Trains leave the airport for either of two railroad stations in the city, from which you will have to take a taxi or public transportation to your final destination; trainfare alone is about 4 Euros. The most expensive way to get from the airport to the city is to take a taxi; this will cost about 40 Euros. The Agency will provide a flat allowance per person for travel from the airport, which can likely be less than the actual taxi fare.
Before leaving the airport, it is advisable to exchange some dollars for Euros, to cover possible expenses before reporting to the Agency. This is particularly important for people arriving on the weekend or after hours, when banks are closed. In any event, Euros will be needed to pay the bus and taxi fare. There are currency exchange counters at the airport and at least one of these will be open. Exchange rates here are pretty good ‑ certainly better than at hotels or many of the exchange bureaus throughout the city that are open on weekends. (There is also an Automatic Teller Machine in the airport arrival hall.) Enough should be exchanged to cover restaurant meals, transportation, and incidental expenses incurred during non‑ banking hours (e.g., over the weekend).
5.3.2 Temporary Accommodations
If desired, the Agency will reserve temporary accommodations at a hotel or pension for new arrivals. The information package sent to new staff members along with their contract includes a reservation request form, which should be filled out and returned to the Agency. A pension is like a hotel except that it usually occupies only a portion of a building (e.g., one or two floors). Both pension and hotel rates usually include a continental breakfast but pension rates are usually lower than those of hotels in the center of the city ‑ say 100-150 Euros per night for a single with private bath, compared with 175 Euros and up for a hotel.
5.3.3 Reporting to Work
To get on the payroll, the new staff member should report to the Agency's Personnel Office on the first working day after arrival. The Personnel Office will advise the staff member on the various administrative procedures to be tended to, and will also hasten the issuance of the assignment grant. The new employee should also report to his or her supervisor as soon as possible. The latter understands that there are many personal and administrative matters to be attended to, particularly seeking permanent housing, and will not expect the new arrival to begin work full-time immediately.
One can conveniently get to the Vienna International Center (VIC), which houses both the IAEA and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), from the center of Vienna by the U‑bahn or underground (U1 line). The Agency stop is variously referred to as the Vienna International Center (VIC), UNO (for United Nations Organizations)‑City, or Kaisermuehlen station. When going to the VIC from the center of the city be sure to board the "Zentrum Kagran" train of the U1 line; the "Reumannplatz" train, which goes in the opposite direction, should be taken for the return trip. If your temporary accommodations are not convenient to the U1 line, you will have to take some other U‑bahn line, a street car, or bus to a connecting point and transfer to the U1 line there. Maps of the public transportation system can be obtained at the Karlsplatz U‑bahn station.
5.4 Host Family Program
To alleviate some of the difficulties and concerns of U.S. citizens who accept positions as IAEA staff in the Department of Safeguards, ISPO will assign a U.S. family or individual already living in Vienna to act as a "host family" to the new arrivals.
The host-family concept came about as a method to help ease the often stressful time just before departure for Vienna, arrival in Vienna, and the several months after arrival when the staff member and family are adjusting to a new, unfamiliar setting. The host-family program is coordinated by a knowledgeable volunteer in Vienna who maintains a list of individuals and families who have offered to act as hosts to new arrivals. Upon being notified that a new staff member has been chosen, he or she will match a host with the new arrivals. The host will contact the new family before their departure for Vienna if there is time, and will often arrange to meet the family at the airport upon arrival. From there, the interaction is up to the parties concerned, but often includes the hosts introducing the newcomers to Vienna, the public-transportation system, favorite restaurants, shopping, friends, and housing leads. The host family provides a sympathetic ear, a helping hand, and a positive introduction to the Vienna experience.
6.1 Housing
Housing in Vienna tends to be expensive and not as well‑equipped with modern conveniences as American housing. Apartments generally are smaller, with fewer rooms, and much less, if any, built‑in storage space (closets, kitchen cupboards). Refrigerators supplied with apartments (not all are) most likely will be small and may lack freezer compartments. The only laundry facilities (e.g., washers and dryers) may be communal and located in the basement of the building, with a rotating schedule for tenants’ usage. Many apartments are equipped with a washer, but not a dryer; dishwashers are often considered a luxury.
Rents vary a great deal, depending on the size and age of the apartment, its location, and the degree to which it is furnished. Many apartments in Vienna are rent-controlled, but these are rarely available to non-Austrians. Recent "maximum reasonable rents" stated by the Agency are based on a space cost of approximately $1.50/sq. ft. This translates into a monthly rent of $1500 for a 1000 sq. ft. apartment (2 bedrooms), not including maintenance fees, value-added-tax (VAT) charges of 10%, and utilities. The renter can expect to pay up to $3000/mo. for a larger apartment in a very desirable location. In general, the rent depends more on the number of rooms in the apartment than on its living space, and a great deal on its location.
An additional initial expense that should be taken into account is the requirement for a security deposit of one or two months' rent. Under some rental contracts the landlord will keep some of this to cover the cost of painting the apartment for the next tenant.
The Agency also maintains some housing for its staff members that are relatively inexpensive. However, because the amount is limited, there is a long waiting list. If you think you will be in Vienna for more than two years and would like to avail yourself of this housing, it would be advisable to get on the waiting list as soon as possible.
Furnished apartments as well as unfurnished ones are available. Here, some terminology should be explained. "Unfurnished" apartments in Vienna often mean no appliances and no light fixtures. You can be faced with bare walls, bare wires and, quite often, no closets (wardrobes are used instead). "Partly furnished" often means an appliance or two (perhaps a stove and refrigerator) and, maybe some light fixtures. "Furnished" apartments can range from fully to sparsely furnished, often with items that are well used. Although some families have found good- quality furnished housing, in general it would be best to plan on renting an unfurnished apartment and shipping ones own furnishings over, possibly supplementing them by purchases on the local market of either new or used items. There is a lively commerce in the latter by IAEA, UNIDO, and U.S. Embassy staff, with offerings posted on the various bulletin boards at the VIC. Also, the Agency shipping allowance is quite generous (see Section 5.2).
The value‑added tax on apartment rentals is 10% (20% on furnishings). Staff at P‑5 level and higher, who enjoy diplomatic privileges, can have these rebated.
The choice of location depends on one's individual needs and tastes. The most popular districts for Americans are the 1st, 8th, 9th, 13th, 18th, and 19th. Those who like to be near the main cultural and business districts may prefer apartments near the center of the city (Districts 3 to 9). These also have the advantage that the trip to the VIC by U‑Bahn is very short. On the other hand, the buildings tend to be older. People with school‑age children may prefer to live in one of the outlying districts (13, 18 and 19), particularly the 19th, where the American International School is located and where many Americans and others from the international community live. These are called the "green areas," because of the prevalence of parks and the fewer buildings compared with the center of the city. However, rents in the 19th District tend to be high, due to the competition for housing by diplomatic‑service families, some of whom receive a generous housing allowance from their governments.
Finding suitable housing is apt to be the single most taxing experience for the new arrival. Recognizing this, the VIC maintains a housing service that carries a listing of offerings and that will advise on leases and other aspects of renting. Since the terms of leases vary widely, sometimes including provisions that could be very costly to the tenant, it is most important that any lease be shown to personnel at this office before it is signed, especially since it is apt to be in German. The housing service will also help with preparing leases using standard contract forms, available in both English and German. Similar services are offered by the Vienna Service Office, established at the VIC by the City of Vienna. To facilitate its assistance, the Agency's Housing Service requests that new appointees fill out and return as soon as possible the Housing Requirement Questionnaire, included in the Agency package that all new staff receive.
The Housing Service will not accompany you on visits to prospective apartments. It would, therefore, be advisable to try to enlist the help of an experienced American on the staff (or spouse) to help with apartment hunting, initial inspection, and discussions with landlords.
Probably no other single factor will affect the quality of a staff member's stay in Vienna as much as housing. New staff will find housing considered suitable by American standards to be more expensive than in the United States (more so compared with low‑cost housing areas such as Oak Ridge, Tenn., and less so compared with high‑cost urban areas, such as New York City and Washington, D.C.). Those with children who wish to live near the American School and wish to have the amenities that they are accustomed to having in their stateside homes may need to pay near the middle or higher end of the aforementioned range. It must be kept in mind, however, that the Agency's rent subsidy system (see Section 4.3.2) will partly offset the higher cost. Also, given the importance of housing to the morale of the staff member and his or her family, it is probably better to pay somewhat more than one would wish to obtain housing that is acceptable to everyone in the family.
6.2 Transportation
6.2.1 Public
Vienna has a very highly developed mass transportation system consisting of trains, streetcars, and buses. This safe, clean, and efficient system is well described in the Agency's Beginners' Kit; here, we give only a brief summary.
The U‑Bahn is the “underground” or “subway system”. Quite modern, it has five lines, U1, U2, U3, U4, and U6 which are invariably denoted on maps of the system by the colors red, purple, orange, green, and brown, respectively. The VIC is served by the U1 line, which has a stop, alternately called the Vienna International Center, UNO‑City, or Kaisermuehlen station, near the main entrance to the VIC.
The Schnellbahn (rapid transit), usually shown in blue and black on system maps, is composed of 10 lines (and is not really part of the city subway system); it connects the city with its suburbs but can be used within the city with the mass transit tickets used for subways, trams, and buses.
The Strassenbahn system is claimed to be the largest street‑car system in the world, and serves every part of the city outside the Ringstrasse (the ring‑shaped street that girdles the inner city). There are 35 lines, with almost 1,000 stops servicing this city of 1.6 million people. Transfers between these “trams”, the subway system, and buses are allowed.
Finally, if there are any errant city blocks not serviced by either a train or a tram (the nineteenth district, home to many Americans, has such areas), there are numerous autobus routes that cover them. With all of the trains, trams, and buses, the city’s public-transportation system forms a tight network.
Tickets can be obtained from automatic ticket‑dispensing machines on trams and buses (but generally not on trains), advance sales offices at stations, and at tobacconists (Tabaks). They are also sold at the newsstand in the Rotunda of the Vienna International Center.
Regular tickets, bought from automats at full price, and valid for continuous journeys of any length (including transfers) cost 1.50 Euros. (A packet of 5 regular tickets can be purchased at a "Tabak" for 7.50 Euros.) There are several other options available; four popular ones are the following:
Umweltstreifenkarte (acht-tage karte) - a ticket having 8 strips that allows unlimited travel for a full day, for any 8 days of the user’s choosing. The traveler stamps one strip at the beginning of his/her journey that day. The cost of a card is 24 Euros.
Wochenkarte - a card for unlimited travel, valid for one week, from Monday through Sunday. The cost is 12.50 Euros.
Monatskarte - a card, valid for one month of unlimited travel. The cost is 45 Euros.
Jahreskarte - a card, valid for one year of unlimited travel. The cost is 409 Euros.
Each week or month, a new stamp must be purchased and affixed to the Wochenkarte or Monatskarte, which bears a passport-size photograph of the user.
Children under the age of 6 can ride the public transportation system free. Children with a school identification card (a Schulerausweis issued by the school) can use the public transportation system free during school hours. All children up to age 15 can travel free on Austrian school holidays, Sundays, and during the summer school holiday.
The mass-transit system operates on a pseudo‑honor basis. That is, since the U‑Bahn, many trams, and buses, do not have conductors, it is possible to ride on them without a ticket. However, passengers are expected to have tickets, and to reinforce this principle, plainclothes "controllers" periodically board the conveyances and ask to see each person's ticket. Failure to produce one results in a large fine (plus the cost of the ticket) and considerable embarrassment. It is, therefore, wise not to try to "beat the system."
Tickets must be validated with the time and date by automatic machines at the entrance to the train platforms or on trams and buses. Such tickets should be retained until the end of the journey, so that they can be shown to the controllers, if need be. The “Karten” are kept for as long as they are valid.
Many more details about the transportation system, including a route map, schedules, and information about other special kinds of tickets, are given in the Agency's Beginners' Kit.
6.2.2 Private
Autos
6.2.2.1 Licensing and Taxes
A U.S. driver's license is valid in Austria for up to one year after its holder's arrival. By the end of that period, an Austrian license must have been obtained. The Agency's Division of General Services will assist the new staff member in obtaining one. The staff member must submit to this office the valid U.S. license, a medical certificate, Austrian identity card (Legitimationskarte) and two photographs. Spouses may do the same. An Austrian driver's license is valid indefinitely.
Automobiles imported from the United States must meet Austrian safety and emission standards. Although the new staff member may bring such a car in duty‑free, it must, nevertheless, go through customs and technical inspection to assure compliance with these requirements. Details on the procedures for importing U.S. automobiles can be obtained by writing the Agency's Division of General Services, Transportation Section, attention Mr. G. Hlavin. Persons contemplating importing U.S. cars into Austria should bear in mind that the process is apt to be costly and complicated; also, that such cars will be expensive to operate and maintain, due to the high price of gasoline and the scarcity of parts for American cars. It may also be difficult to re‑sell the car upon departure, and bringing it back to the U.S. may entail further expense for reconversion to the American safety standards.
A value-added tax of 20% is imposed on new cars sold in Austria and an additional environmentally linked tax (NOVA) is also applied, which depends on a number of variables but mainly on horsepower. It varies between 4% and 16%, but on average, this latter tax comes to about 12%. Fortunately, the exemption of Agency employees from these taxes has been retained. Agency employees in the professional grades below P‑5 may import or purchase a new car free of levies every four years. They may also sell the automobile after four years without paying any taxes. If the staff member leaves the Agency before the end of the four‑year term, upon application the Austrian authorities will usually grant a reduction in any duties due. Staff members at the P‑5 level or higher have the privilege of importing two new automobiles every two years tax‑free, and may sell them tax‑free at the end of that time.
These exemptions from the duty on new automobiles are of considerable value to the staff member, since they mean that at the end of the required minimum period they can be resold as used cars to Austrian purchasers for almost as much as was paid for them in the case of grades P‑1 to P‑4, and for no less or even more than the original purchase price by P‑5s.
6.2.2.2 Automobile Insurance
Third‑party automobile liability insurance is compulsory in Austria. The minimum liability coverage is mandated to be 3 million Euros, but much greater coverage is available at a marginally greater cost. The premium depends on two factors: your driving record and the horsepower rating of the insured vehicle. As an example, the liability premium for 10 million Euros coverage on a medium power Mercedes, would be about 550 Euros per annum. For liability insurance, a “bonus/malus” system is in effect that rewards/punishes drivers based on their accident history. Premiums are reduced in a stepwise manner for accident-free drivers, until, after eight years, the premiums would be half of the full amount. However, the increase in premiums is much more rapid for cars that require the carrier to compensate a third party due to an accident(s).
Collision-and
comprehensive-insurance premiums also depend on two factors: your driving
record and the monetary value of the vehicle. A representative annual premium
for the Mercedes used in the foregoing example would be about 850 Euros. There
is a decrease in this premium with a continuance of claimless years but it is
much less pronounced than in the case of liability premiums (about 2 or 3%
decrease per year). Although liability insurance must be obtained from
insurers registered in Austria, collision insurance is under no such
restriction. New staff may, therefore, wish to explore the possibility of
obtaining collision insurance from U.S. companies willing to provide coverage
abroad. We are informed that most U.S. Embassy employees do so. Local
insurance companies maintain offices at the VIC, with representatives on hand
to explain the details of auto insurance policies.
6.2.2.3 Driving Rules
Drive Without Tears by Waschek and Gerrard contains a useful description of Austrian traffic- and motor-vehicle-regulations, as well as other information of interest to the motorist. We will only mention a few important points: (1) Austrians drive on the right side of the road, (2) speed limits are 50 kilometers/hr (about 30 mph) in any city or village, 100 km/hr (about 60 mph) on state highways, and 130 km/hr (about 80 mph) on Autobahns (super highways), (3) the laws governing drinking and driving are extremely strict and provide for very heavy fines, (4) stay out of the way of trams ‑ they always have right of way, (5) slow down and be prepared to stop when approaching a pedestrian crossing, (6) at crossings without traffic lights, the car approaching on the right always has right of way, (7) children under 12 may not ride in the front seat, and (8) cars must have seat belts, wearing them is required by law. In case of an accident resulting in injury of persons not wearing seat belts, insurance coverage may be voided or reduced.
Parking restrictions in Vienna occur in those areas of the city where “parksheins” are necessary during weekdays, notably in the first through ninth districts. Parksheins are short-term permits, purchasable at Tabaks, on which you indicate the day and time at which you parked your vehicle. You display the permit on your dashboard to avoid a parking fine. Permits for various durations are available and each one is usable only once.
Road signs make use of internationally recognized symbols, but there are also many signs written only in German. The Berlitz Travel Guide to Vienna (one of a series of handy little pocket guides for travelers) lists these, with translations. Perhaps the most important of these is Einbahn (One Way). New‑comers have been known to confuse this with the name of the street.
Additional information on automobile travel in Vienna can be obtained by writing or calling the Austrian National Tourist Office, 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10110, 212-944-6880.
6.3 Cost of Living
For Americans who wish to live at the same material standard as in the United States, Vienna is an expensive city. The U.S. State Department periodically surveys living costs in the various foreign cities in which it maintains staff, and uses the data to establish post- and living-quarters allowances for its personnel (U.S. Department of State Indexes of Living Costs Abroad, Quarters Allowances, and Hardship Differentials, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics). It also computes indexes that can be used by private firms to compensate their employees working abroad. Two such indexes are called the "local relative" and the "local index". These differ slightly in that the former is a basic price comparison of goods and services in the foreign city and in Washington, D.C., while the local index is the local relative "adjusted to reflect modification in the consumption expenditures made by Americans living in the foreign city". Neither index includes the cost of housing or education. As a matter of interest, these indexes generally hover around 1.6 for Vienna, but should not be taken too literally.
Interested persons can get further details on the State Department cost-of-living surveys by writing or calling
Allowances Staff A/ALS SA-6, Room 223 U.S. Department of State Washington, D.C. 20520 Attention: Ms. Juanita Stokes Phone: 703-875-7867Per diem rates, for travelers on government business, can be found by calling up the following website: www.state.gov/www/perdiems/index.html
The tax‑exempt status of IAEA‑derived income provides a considerable offset against the higher cost of living. In addition, rent subsidies and the availability of the Agency Commissary with its lower prices, reduce the impact even further. Beyond that, the dependency allowance, the educational assistance, and the assignment and repatriation grants tend to compensate for some of the personal expenses.
As mentioned above, the Agency operates a Commissary to which all staff and their families have access and which offers many goods at prices 20‑30% lower than in local stores. The Commissary does not stock fresh meat and produce, but carries frozen foods, including meat, poultry and fish, canned fruits and vegetables, breakfast cereals, staples, paper products, cosmetics and toiletries, coffee and tea, and many other products, including specialty foods from many countries. Goods such as liquors, wines, cigarettes, and perfumes are especially inexpensive because they are sold tax‑ and duty‑free. Agency staff shop there for a large part of their food, household- and personal products.
Clothing prices in Vienna are especially high, a good reason to bring as much as you can with you. For that reason also, while on duty or personal travel, many Agency staff buy clothing in neighboring countries where it may be cheaper. The commissary stocks some basic items of clothing, such as underwear, socks, and shirts, but is far from being able to provide all of one’s clothing needs.
Long‑distance phone calls to the United States are much more expensive than calls in the reverse direction, suggesting that it would be economical to have stateside friends and relatives initiate the calls and to reimburse them for the cost. An alternative is to use a U.S. telephone-company calling card for calls originating in Vienna. The International Herald Tribune publishes the phone numbers by which American operators can be reached from various European cities, including Vienna.
In addition, there are numerous “call-back” services advertised in various media. One (of several) listed in the IHT is “NewWorld Telecommunications” at 1402 Teaneck Road, Teaneck, N.J. 07666. Its web site, www.newworldtele.com, indicates that calls from Vienna to the United States would cost 22 cents per minute. It gives rate tables for thousands of country-to-country connections, encompassing Afghanistan to Zimbabwe. Another, similar company is “kallback." Information on rates is available at www.Kallback.com, at 417 Second Avenue, Seattle, WA, 98119.
6.4 Medical Care
The IAEA, UNIDO, and UN have established a Joint Medical Service (JMS), with offices at the VIC, which is available to staff members and families for certain specific services. There is also a pharmacy on the premises, which will fill prescriptions for staff members and dependents more cheaply than at local pharmacies. These and other aspects of medical care in Vienna are described in the booklet A Guide to Medical and Health Services in Vienna, which is distributed to all new staff.
The JMS will provide first-aid and emergency treatment to staff during working hours, medical examinations to staff on recruitment and termination, vaccinations and inoculations for staff members and their families, medical consultation for staff members, and medical advice to staff members undertaking official travel. It will also advise on selecting general practitioners and specialists. The Guide explains how health services work in Austria, lists English‑speaking doctors who are available to staff during non-working hours in emergencies under arrangement with the JMS, and lists public and private hospitals. It also contains an English‑German, German‑English glossary of common medical terms and names of parts of the body.
As in most countries, the quality of medical and hospital care varies widely in Austria. Non‑German-speaking American staff obviously faces the additional problem of requiring English‑speaking doctors. The Joint Medical Service urges newcomers to register with a general practitioner or internal medicine specialist as soon as possible after arrival, and will offer advice on the choice. It will also advise on the choice of hospital, should hospitalization become necessary. New staff may also wish to consult with other Americans on the staff for recommendations. The U.S. Embassy maintains a list of English‑speaking doctors used by its staff. Several former CFEs and staff have particularly recommended the Rudolfinerhaus, a general hospital located in the 19th district.
Pet owners and those who like to hike in the woods should be aware that a tick‑borne disease called "spring and summer encephalitis" is endemic to the Vienna area and parts of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. Although the incidence is not high, there are a few fatalities every year. Since exposure depends so much on life style, the U.S. State Department does not require its personnel assigned to those areas to be vaccinated against the disease, but vaccinations can be obtained in Vienna. Since the vaccine has never been approved for use in the United States, it is not available here. The vaccine is usually administered three times over a one- or two‑year period. New staff interested in being vaccinated should consult the Joint Medical Service. Those allergic to eggs (the vaccine is prepared in an egg-based medium) and prone to anaphylactic shock may also want to consult a physician before deciding to undergo the treatments. The vaccinations can also be obtained at every District House (Bezirkamt) during the summer for about 15 Euros.
In general, to avoid possible problems or needless expense, new recruits should have any existing or anticipated medical and dental problems tended to before going over to Vienna. Those needing eyeglasses should also try to get them beforehand. It should be noted, incidentally, that drivers needing glasses to drive (usually indicated on U.S. drivers licenses) are required by Austrian law to carry an extra pair in the car. Those using special prescription medicines should bring several months supply, since it may take some time to find an exact Austrian equivalent. A note from their physician describing the medicine may also be helpful.
Health insurance and paying for medical services were discussed in Sec.
4.3.6.
6.5 Schools
There are four English‑language college‑preparatory day schools in Vienna.
The American
International School, (Salmannsdorferstrasse 47, A-1190 Vienna, Tel. 40 13
20), as the name implies, is modeled on the American system and has grades
kindergarten through 12, plus a nursery school. Accredited by the Middle
Association of Colleges and Schools, it offers a U.S. high-school diploma and
also a program of study for the International Baccalaureate degree, required
for admission to European universities and for which some American universities
give extra credit. The school has more than 750 students in grades Nursery
through 12. The student‑body composition is as follows: one third American,
one-fifth Austrian, and half from 50 other countries. 
The AIS is located in the 19th District, where many American families live. Bus
transportation, which is optional, is provided for a fee. Bus routes are
established once per year when the residential distribution of the students is
known. Parents wishing this kind of information should contact the school
directly. The school also has a web site:
www.ais.at. This site provides much of the information that the
parent of a prospective student would be interested in and even includes some
maps of parts of Vienna.
The Vienna International School (Strasse der Menschenrechte 1, A‑1220 Vienna, Tel. 203 55 95) was modeled originally on the British school system. It also builds upon the experience of schools in two other UN cities: the United Nations International School in New York, and the International School of Geneva. It offers programs towards a General Diploma (suitable for admission to two‑year colleges), an Academic Diploma (accepted for entrance into four‑year colleges and universities), and the International Baccalaureate degree. There are now 1400 students at the school, representing more than 85 nationalities. The VIS is located in the 22nd District, about one kilometer north of the VIC. The school's web site is: www.vis.ac.at.
The Danube International School (Joseph Gall Gasse 2, A-1020 Vienna, Tel. 720-3110) was founded in August 1992 by a group of parents in the Vienna business community "to enable their children to have a globally recognized certificate of international education." It is "an independent, non-denominational, co-education day school," established on the American model. It offers courses at the kindergarten, reception class (a transitional class between kindergarten and 1st grade), elementary school (grades 1-4), middle school (grades 5-8), and high-school (grades 9-12) levels. Classes in the high school are designed to lead towards an International Baccalaureate degree. The school has a cafeteria and offers daily bus service in the morning for all students and for children in the elementary grades in the afternoon as well. The school is located in the 10th District. The current enrollment is about 340, representing 40 nationalities. See its web site at www.danubeschool.at for more information.
The Vienna Christian School (Wagramesstrasse 175, Vienna A-1220, Tel. 251-22501) as its name implies, is a school that provides a Christian-oriented education in the English language. It provides instruction for students from kindergarten through twelfth grade and is part of a worldwide network of schools. Its student body numbers over 200 from 34 different countries. There is a 500 Euro registration fee for new students and tuition for children in kindergarten through fifth grade is 7,560 Euros. The annual tuition for a child in sixth through twelfth grade is 8,730 Euros.
Table 6‑1 shows the most recently available schedule of fees for the other three schools. Bus and lunch fees are optional. Also, many activities, such as field trips, are available at additional cost.
Although, in principle, Austrian schools are also available, the language of instruction is German. A French school, the Lycee Francais (Liechtensteinstrasse 37a, 1090 Vienna, Tel. 34 22 41 42 43) is open to all nationalities, but instruction is in French.
Beyond secondary-school education, opportunities exist for English-language college-level instruction.
Webster University (Marokkanorgasse 16, A‑1030 Vienna, Tel. 75 75 92), a branch of Webster University in St. Louis, offers BA, MA, and MBA programs, with instruction in English. Interested parties should write to the above address or to Webster University, 470 East Lockwood Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63119 (Phone 314‑968‑6900) for details of programs, living arrangements, tuition schedule, and application procedures.
In connection with tuition fees, it should be recalled (see Sec. 4.3.1.2, Education Grants) that the Agency will reimburse employees for 75% of educational expenses, up to a maximum expense limit of 12,159 Euros per child (16,212 Euros for a handicapped child) for students in Viennese schools.
An idiosyncrasy of the bureaucracy that the staff member may encounter is that the Agency tends to pro-rate the education grant in accordance with the time a child has enrolled in class. Some schools may charge full tuition, however, regardless of when the student began studies during the school term. This mismatch in charges with reimbursement can be a significant amount and may be worth considering when initial plans are being made.
Table 6-1
Schedule of School
Fees
(2002-2003 School
Year)
| American International School | Euros |
| Non-Refundable Application Fee | 150 |
| One-Time Enrollment Fee | 300 |
| Capital Assessment Fee* (new students) | 3,000 |
| Capital Assessment Fee (returning students) | 330 |
| Tuition | |
| Full Day Kindergarten I | 6,240 |
| Full Day Kindergarten | 11,450 |
| Grades 1-5 | 11,450 |
| Grades 6-11 | 12,754 |
| Grades 12 | 13,012 |
| Services - Annual | |
| Lunch (Pre-K to 3) w/o milk/desert | 610 |
| (4 to 12) w/o milk/desert | 692 |
| Milk | 60 |
| Bus | 578-636 |
| Services - Daily | |
| Lunch (Pre-K to 3) | 3.90 |
| (4 to 12) | 4.40 |
| Bus | 3.80 |
* One-time. Kindergarten I excluded.
| Vienna International School | Euros |
| Non-Refundable Application Fee* | 73 |
| Registration Fee | 872 |
| Tuition | |
| Pre-Primary | 6,205 |
| Pre-Primary (Half Day) | 3,620 |
| Primary | 8,103 |
| Grade 1 | 8,103 |
| Grade 2 | 8,200 |
| Grade 3 | 8,273 |
| Grade 4 | 8,273 |
| Grade 5 | 8,370 |
| Grade 6 | 10,008 |
| Grade 7 | 10,008 |
| Grade 8 | 10,096 |
| Grade 9 | 10,900 |
| Grade 10 | 10,900 |
| Grade 11 | 11,079 |
| Grade 12 | 11,079 |
| Bus - Annual | |
| Mornings Only | 492 |
| Afternoons Only | 561 |
| Both Ways | 1,053 |
* Re-entries and
Re-applicants must also pay this fee.
** Re-entries must pay half this fee.
Note: There is also a 291 Euro security deposit required to cover any damage to or loss of VIS property caused by the student.
| Danube International School | Euros |
| Non-Refundable Application Fee | 185 |
| Non-Refundable Enrollment Fee | 730 |
| Activities Fee | 220 |
| Refundable Security Deposit | 365 |
| Refundable Development Fund | 730 |
| Tuition | |
| Primary | 8,645 |
| Grades 1-4 | 8,790 |
| Grade 5 | 9,120 |
| Grades 6-8 | 10,545 |
| Grades 9-10 | 11,210 |
| Grades 11-12 | 11,825 |
Comparison Summary between the AIS and the VIS Schools:
Generally speaking the VIS is supposed to accept all students generated by the IAEA. The AIS is supposed to accept all students generated by the U.S. Embassy community. Admission into the other school is subject to space availability.
The VIS has a
lower tuition, but a higher demand and waiting list for students to get into
the school.
The UN offers
75% of educational
expenses, up to a maximum expense limit of 12,159 Euros per child (16,212 Euros
for a handicapped child) for a child's attendance at the VIS.
AIS costs
more than the VIS equivalent tuition assistance, but has no waiting list.
A new AIS student assessment fee of just over
$3000 Euros per student (1st year only) is not reimbursable by the IAEA.
For both schools, mid-year entry is disadvantageous due to the education grant being pro-rated.
6.5.1 VIC Child Care Center
A Child Care Center has been operating at the VIC for a few years now, catering to children from just a few months old, up to school age. The Center is operated by the Municipality of Vienna and thus the basic language is German but a special program in English is offered for children over 3 years old. The Center is open from 6:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. and provides half-day, part-time, and full-time supervision, as desired. Corresponding fees range from 116 Euros per month to 196 Euros per month, plus meal charges, if applicable. For detailed information contact Ms. A. Schiffmann at extension 22533.
6.6 Banking
6.6.1 General
Banking services in Austria are in certain respects very similar to those offered by U.S. banks but in other respects quite different. Banks offer the standard checking, savings, and loan services, and, in addition, can pay certain of your bills for you, through a funds‑transfer system.
For most Americans at the IAEA it is convenient to maintain a dollar account at a bank in the United States and both a Euro and a dollar account at an Austrian bank. The purpose of the former account is to facilitate payment of U.S. expenses and deposit of U.S.‑derived income, such as rents, pension payments, and dividends. The Euro account at the Austrian bank can be used to cover local expenses and the dollar account for expenses incurred while traveling outside the European Union. You can elect to receive up to 70% of your net emoluments from the Agency in dollars.
You can also request the Agency to transfer dollars from your pay automatically to your U.S. account, and dollars and Euros to your Austrian accounts. Two Austrian banks have branches at the VIC, and many staff members find it convenient to deal with one or the other of them. Spouses need not worry, however, that they must bank at the VIC, for local banks are easily used and, in most cases, some English is spoken.
Checks can be drawn on the Austrian bank account in the usual way. You might, for example, pay your rent by check. Other bills may be paid through the direct transfer of funds from your account to the recipient's, even though the latter may be with a different bank (the transfer order is called a "Zahlschein; see "Living in Vienna" for a sample form). Typically, utility bills, such as for telephone, electricity, or water, are paid this way. Thus, the telephone company will send you its bill on a transfer order form. You fill out your part of the form with your name, account number, and amount to be paid, and present it to your bank. They then transfer the indicated amount to the recipient's account. You may also issue a standing transfer-order to automatically pay bills that do not vary in amount from one payment period to another.
Cash cards (called "Bankomat" cards) for use with automatic- teller machines are also available. Like their counterparts in the United States, these machines, which can be found at many locations throughout Austria, are open 24 hours a day. They are found under blue-and-green projections jutting out of the sides of a building=s walls. It is even possible to obtain Euros from these machines using your personal stateside ATM card. Bankomat cards may also be used as one uses a debit card in the states; you can swipe the card at the supermarket, for example, and the appropriate amount is debited to your account.
You can use major U.S. credit cards in Austria and most of Europe in many stores and restaurants. You may also (or instead) wish to obtain a Eurocard, which is essentially an i.d. card that allows you to write checks almost anywhere. There are, however, charges for having (and using) these cards, as there are fees for most of the other bank services you will be involved with (including, for example, the direct transfers referred to above).
Loans are easy to get for Agency staff. For example, a new-car loan does not require a down payment and the interest rate from the banks at the VIC is about 9%. The staff member should investigate obtaining a loan from the Agency=s Staff Council, however, before approaching any banks; these are sometimes available at very low interest rates.
6.6.2 Survival "Bankese"
Staff members will
inevitably become embroiled in bank statements sent to them at various
intervals. Some of the mystery inherent in these cryptic missives can be
dispelled with a “glossary of banking terms”. A short one is given below.
|
Altar Kontostand |
Previous Balance |
| Barauszahlung | Cash Withdrawal |
| Bareinzahlung | Cash Deposit |
| Betrag | Amount, Sum, Total |
| Dauerauftrag | Standing Order |
| Depotgebuhren | Deposit Charge |
|
Devisen/Valuten |
Foreign Exchange |
| Empfangshein | Receipt |
| Erlagschein | Money (or Postal) Order |
| Gubuhren, Prov., Zinsen | Charges, Commissions, Interest |
| Gutschrift | Credit |
| Neuer Kontostand zu Ihren Gunsten | New Credit Balance |
| Neuer Kontostand zu Ihren Lasten | New Debit Balance |
| Scheckkartengebuhr | Check card Fee |
| Storno | Cancellation |
| Summe der Belastungen | Total Debit Entries |
| Summe der Gutschriften | Total Credit Entries |
| Uberweisung/Ubertrag | Transfer |
| Uberweisungsauftrag | Transfer Order |
| Zahlschein | Bank Transfer Order |
6.7 Employment Opportunities for the Spouse
Employment opportunities for spouses are limited in Austria, but they do exist. IAEA rules allow a staff member's spouse to be employed at the Agency, subject to the following restrictions:
the spouse is not given preference for the post by virtue of his or her relationship to the staff member,
the spouse shall not be assigned to serve in a post that is superior or subordinate in the staff member=s line of authority,
the spouse shall not participate in administrative decisions affecting the status or entitlements of the staff member.
Non-Foreign-Service positions (e.g., secretarial positions) at the U.S. Embassy and Mission are limited to family members of employees at those agencies. Jobs occasionally open up at the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, which shares the VIC facilities with the IAEA, and there are also occasional openings at the American International School, but the spouse should not count on this possibility.
Most American firms in Austria have very few non‑Austrian employees. Even if a job with such a firm were to become available, it would be necessary to obtain a work permit, which is not easy. Needless to say, a good knowledge of German is essential for anyone seeking almost any job in the Austrian labor market.
Given the employment situation outlined above, spouses should recognize that they cannot count on finding paid employment in Vienna. For those spouses who want to pursue all avenues, the book "American Women and Work in Austria" published by the AWA provides additional useful information for all job seekers. Another useful publications, this one by the UN Women’s Guild, is “The Employment Booklet for UN and Embassy Spouses”. This 40-page booklet gets into many details of the employment problems that spouses face in Vienna.
6.8 Cultural Life
There are so many guides to the cultural life of Vienna, for which the city is justly famous, that it would be pointless to repeat the information here. Suffice i
